Wild Flavour Wheel

Heather

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Heather
• Ling
• Scotch Heather
• Calluna Vulgaris

Origin

Heather is native to Europe, particularly widespread across the British Isles, Scandinavia, and parts of western and central Europe. It also grows in parts of Asia Minor and North Africa and has naturalised in North America and New Zealand. It thrives in acidic, nutrient-poor soils, and is especially abundant in moorlands, heathlands, and upland regions. It prefers open, sunny environments and is tolerant of wind, grazing, and poor soil conditions.

Summary

Heather is a low-growing, woody, evergreen shrub that forms dense mats of vegetation across heath and moorland landscapes. It is one of the most iconic and ecologically important plants of upland Britain, where it dominates large expanses of open terrain. Flowering typically occurs from late July into early September, though some varieties may begin earlier or persist longer depending on climate.

Heather plays a critical role in the ecology of moorland, providing shelter and food for birds, insects, and mammals. It is a hardy plant, with small scale-like leaves and abundant clusters of purple to mauve bell-shaped flowers that attract pollinators in late summer.

Where to find Heather

Heather is most commonly found in heathlands, moorlands, coastal headlands, and open pine forests. It prefers acidic, sandy, or peaty soils and is highly tolerant of poor nutrients and exposed, windswept conditions. In the UK, it is a dominant species in the uplands of Scotland, northern England, Wales, and western Ireland. It also occurs in lowland heaths, particularly in southern England and East Anglia.

Look for carpets of low, shrubby growth with fine leaves and vibrant purple flowering spikes in late summer. It often grows alongside gorse, bilberry, and cross-leaved heath.

How to Identify

Heather grows up to 50 cm tall, often forming dense, springy mats. Its leaves are small, scale-like, and arranged in opposite pairs along the stems. They are evergreen and tightly clasp the twig, giving the plant a wiry, fine-textured appearance.

The flowers are small and bell-shaped, clustered in spikes along the upper portions of the stems. They are usually a soft purple or pinkish-mauve but can occasionally be white. Flowers appear from mid to late summer and are a key nectar source for bees and butterflies.

Heather stems are woody at the base, often branching and twisted, with newer growth appearing green and flexible. Older stems turn grey-brown and become tough and brittle.

Sensory Information

Heather has a subtle, earthy scent that becomes more noticeable when flowering. The flowers have a faint honey-like fragrance and are often alive with buzzing insects. The leaves are tough and dry to the touch. The plant has a springy, resilient texture when walked on, forming thick, spongy ground cover in mature heaths.

When dried, the plant maintains its shape and colour well and has historically been used for floral decorations, bedding, and brooms.

How to Use

Heather has a range of traditional uses, both practical and medicinal. While not commonly used in modern cuisine, the flowers are occasionally used to flavour herbal teas or added to honey for a delicate floral taste. Heather honey, produced by bees that forage on the flowers, is highly prized for its rich, aromatic, slightly bitter flavour and thick, jelly-like texture.

In traditional medicine, heather was used as a diuretic, antiseptic, and mild sedative. Infusions of the flowering tops were taken for urinary tract infections, insomnia, or rheumatic complaints. It has also been used in poultices and washes for wounds and skin conditions.

Heather stems were used in the past to make thatch, rope, brooms, baskets, and bedding. In parts of Scotland, dried heather was used to stuff mattresses and insulate walls. Heather was also burned as fuel and mixed with clay and straw to make bricks or building material.

Non food and drink uses

Heather has long been used in craft and construction. Bundles of dried stems made durable brushes and brooms. It was also used in the weaving of heather thatch for roofing in croft houses and rural buildings.

In dyeing, heather produces soft browns, greens, and golds when used with mordants, and its tannin-rich stems were sometimes employed in leather tanning.

Heather is also cultivated in gardens for ornamental purposes and for soil erosion control on slopes and disturbed ground. It supports a rich ecosystem, providing habitat and food for species such as red grouse, golden plovers, and a variety of moths and butterflies. Its role in managed moorlands is central to upland conservation practices.

Cultural References & History

Heather is deeply embedded in Scottish and Celtic culture, where it is seen as a symbol of protection, good luck, and natural beauty. The plant is closely associated with Scottish identity and often appears in Highland folklore, poetry, and traditional dress.

In Scottish tradition, white heather is considered especially lucky and is worn on clothing or carried in bridal bouquets. Purple heather, more common, is still a symbol of admiration and solitude. In Victorian floriography, heather represented admiration or good luck, depending on its colour.

Heather was also important in Norse and Celtic traditions as a sacred plant associated with boundaries, transitions, and liminal spaces. In some legends, heather was said to mark the graves of fairies or be the chosen bloom of wandering spirits.

Mythology

In folklore, heather is often seen as a magical or protective plant. In Scottish legend, it was believed that white heather only grew where blood had not been shed, making it a symbol of peace and purity. Warriors sometimes wore sprigs of heather into battle for luck or carried it as a talisman against harm.

Heather was associated with the Celtic goddess Beira, Queen of Winter, who was said to stride across the hills with heather blooming in her footsteps. In Norse tradition, it was sacred to the goddess Freya and linked to love, fertility, and femininity.

Some beliefs held that burning heather could ward off bad luck or summon spiritual clarity. It was also considered useful in attracting benevolent spirits or ensuring safe passage during travel.

Sweet Chestnut

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Sweet Chestnut
• Spanish Chestnut
• Castanea Sativa

Origin

Sweet Chestnut is native to the mountainous regions of southern Europe and parts of western Asia. It was likely introduced to Britain by the Romans for its edible nuts and durable timber, and has since become naturalised across southern England and parts of Wales and Ireland. It thrives in warm, temperate climates and prefers acidic, well-drained soils, often found in woodlands, parklands, and along forest edges. It is less common in colder northern regions or heavy clay soils.

Summary

Sweet Chestnut is a large, deciduous tree known for its long, toothed leaves, spiky seed cases, and edible nuts. It can live for many centuries, reaching heights of 20 to 35 metres and developing a broad, domed crown with age. In Britain, the tree flowers in early to mid-summer, producing both male and female flowers on the same tree in long, creamy catkins. The distinctive nuts ripen in autumn, enclosed in sharp, spiny green burrs that split open when mature.

The tree grows rapidly in youth and is widely planted for its valuable timber and ornamental appeal. It is not closely related to the horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum), despite the similar name and nut appearance.

Where to find Sweet Chestnut

Sweet Chestnut trees are commonly found in ancient woodlands, plantations, parks, and along estate boundaries, especially in southern England. They are also grown in coppice systems for wood production. The tree favours acidic or neutral soils, often thriving in sandy or stony conditions. In warmer parts of Europe, it is cultivated extensively for nut production.

Look for tall, spreading trees with spirally ridged bark, long serrated leaves, and spiky green burrs littering the ground in autumn.

How to Identify

Leaves are long and narrow (up to 28 cm), with a glossy green surface and sharply toothed edges. The veins run parallel from the midrib to each tooth. Leaves are arranged alternately along the twigs and turn yellow to brown in autumn.

Flowers appear in June or July. Male flowers form slender, upright catkins, while female flowers are small, green, and sit at the base of some catkins. The tree is wind-pollinated and often strongly scented when in bloom.

Fruits are glossy brown nuts (chestnuts), usually found in groups of two or three inside a green, spiny husk. The husks fall and split open when ripe in October or November.

Bark on young trees is smooth and reddish-brown, becoming deeply fissured and spirally twisted with age. The twisting is a key identifying feature, especially in mature specimens.

Sensory Information

The tree has a warm, earthy scent, especially in flower, when the catkins give off a slightly sweet, musky aroma. The leaves are smooth and leathery with a faint woody fragrance when crushed. The spiny husks are extremely sharp and must be handled carefully.

The nuts are firm and glossy when fresh, with a sweet, nutty taste when roasted. Raw nuts are starchy and slightly bitter but edible. When cooked, they become soft and slightly floury, with a pleasant, mild sweetness. The wood has a light, tannin-rich scent when cut, and the heartwood is pale brown with a smooth, even grain.

How to Use

The nuts are the primary culinary use of Sweet Chestnut. Harvest in mid to late autumn by collecting fallen husks and extracting the nuts. Prickly cases can be opened with boots or gloves. Choose firm, shiny nuts without holes (a sign of weevil infestation).

To prepare, nuts can be roasted, boiled, or baked. The tough outer shell and papery inner skin must be removed, usually after cooking. Roasting brings out their natural sweetness and is the traditional method in European winter markets. Boiled chestnuts are softer and often used in purees or stuffings.

Chestnuts are low in fat and high in starch, making them suitable for flour production. Chestnut flour is naturally sweet and used in breads, pastries, cakes, and pasta. In Italy and France, chestnut-based dishes are part of traditional rural cuisine.

Timber from Sweet Chestnut is highly valued for its strength, durability, and resistance to rot. It is widely used in fencing, furniture, cladding, flooring, and wine casks. When coppiced, it produces long, straight poles ideal for construction and firewood. Coppicing cycles range from 10 to 25 years, depending on end use.

The bark and leaves contain high levels of tannins and were historically used in leather tanning and herbal medicine.

Non food and drink uses

Sweet Chestnut timber is one of the most durable hardwoods grown in the UK, rivaling oak in strength and longevity. It is used in green woodworking, fencing, gate posts, and joinery. It cleaves cleanly and is suitable for rustic crafts and traditional building techniques.

The tree also plays a role in biodiversity, supporting a variety of insects, fungi, and birds. Its flowers attract bees and other pollinators, while the nuts are consumed by wildlife such as deer, wild boar, squirrels, and jays.

Historically, the tree’s tannin-rich bark was boiled for medicinal washes and compresses. Chestnut leaves were used to make infusions for coughs and bronchial ailments in folk remedies.

Cultural References & History

Sweet Chestnut has been cultivated for thousands of years across southern Europe. The Romans are believed to have introduced it to Britain, valuing both the nuts and wood. It became a staple in the diets of poorer rural communities, especially in mountainous regions where grain crops failed.

In parts of France and Italy, chestnuts were once referred to as "the bread of the poor" due to their role as a primary carbohydrate. Chestnut flour sustained communities through winter and famine.

In Britain, Sweet Chestnut has long been used in estate landscaping and forestry. It features in historical coppice systems and parkland designs.

The tree appears in folklore as a symbol of abundance, longevity, and nourishment. In literature, roasted chestnuts are often associated with winter festivities and hearthside gatherings. Traditional songs and poems often mention chestnuts as a symbol of warmth and comfort.

Mythology

Sweet Chestnut does not occupy as prominent a place in myth as oaks or yews but is nonetheless surrounded by folk beliefs. In some traditions, chestnuts were considered protective and associated with prosperity. Carrying a chestnut was thought to bring good fortune and ward off rheumatism.

In Mediterranean cultures, the chestnut tree was sometimes linked to fertility and resilience. In Christian symbolism, the splitting husk revealing the smooth, sweet nut was sometimes used to represent spiritual revelation or hidden virtue.

In modern times, the image of roasting chestnuts over open fires continues to represent nostalgia, comfort, and the warmth of seasonal celebration.

Pignut

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Pignut
• Earthnut
• Earth Chestnut
• Hog Nut
• Conopodium Majus

Origin

Pignut is native to much of Europe, including the British Isles, and parts of western Asia. It is found in open woodlands, old meadows, hedgerows, and lightly grazed grasslands, preferring light, sandy, or loamy soils. It thrives in nutrient-poor, well-drained environments and is often found in ancient, undisturbed habitats, making it a good indicator of traditional landscapes.

Summary

Pignut is a small, delicate member of the carrot family (Apiaceae), known for its fine, feathery leaves and inconspicuous white flowers. Despite its modest above-ground appearance, it hides a small, edible underground tuber -the “nut”-which is the primary attraction for foragers. This nut has historically been eaten raw or cooked and was once a valued wild snack, especially for children.

Flowering occurs from May to July, and the plant dies back by late Summer. The edible tuber develops slowly and can be harvested throughout the growing season, although it is easiest to find while leaves are still present.

Where to find Pignut

Pignut grows in ancient woodland clearings, old pasture, grassy banks, and hedgerows. It favours well-drained soils and partly shaded environments but will tolerate sun if not too dry. It is widespread in the UK, especially in less intensively managed rural areas.

Look for it in early to midsummer when its delicate leaves and umbels of small white flowers are visible above ground. It is often found among bluebells, wood anemones, and other ancient woodland indicators.

How to Identify

Pignut is a slender plant, growing up to 30 cm tall. Its leaves are finely divided, fern-like, and similar in appearance to wild chervil or cow parsley. The stem is thin and smooth, supporting small, white, five-petalled flowers arranged in compound umbels — typical of the carrot family.

The key feature is the underground tuber, found at the end of a thin root below the surface. This small, round nut (1–2 cm in diameter) is covered in a thin, brown skin and has creamy white flesh inside. The nut is usually buried several centimetres below ground and must be gently unearthed by following the slender root down with fingers or a stick.

Caution is advised when foraging, as many similar-looking members of the carrot family can be toxic (e.g. hemlock or fool’s parsley). Accurate identification is essential before harvesting or consuming.

Sensory Information

The pignut tuber has a sweet, nutty, slightly earthy aroma when freshly dug. Its texture is crisp when raw, similar to a water chestnut or firm radish. The flavour is mild and pleasantly nutty, with a hint of sweetness and a faint taste of hazelnut or coconut.

The leaves are light and feathery to the touch. The flower heads have little to no scent and are often overlooked due to their small size.

How to Use

The edible tuber is the only part of the pignut that is used in food. It can be eaten raw, roasted, or boiled. Traditionally, it was dug up and eaten on the spot, peeled and consumed fresh for its crisp, sweet flavour.

When cooked, the nut becomes softer and slightly sweeter, with a mild chestnut or parsnip-like taste. Roasting enhances its natural sweetness and can be done over hot embers or in an oven. Boiling yields a softer texture but a more muted flavour.

Pignuts can be added to salads raw (after peeling) or incorporated into woodland-style dishes alongside roots, mushrooms, or wild greens. They can also be finely sliced and pan-fried as a delicate garnish or used in savoury custards and wild vegetable soups.

Due to their small size and the labour involved in harvesting, pignuts are not typically used in large quantities but are valued as a forager’s delicacy or seasonal treat.

It is recommended to harvest only sparingly and from areas where the plant is abundant, as digging up the tuber kills the plant. Foraging should be done responsibly, with respect for local conservation guidelines.

Non food and drink uses

Pignut has no significant historical or modern use outside of food and occasional folk reference. It was primarily valued for its edible root, and its delicate appearance made it a familiar sight in traditional countryside settings. The plant contributes to the biodiversity of ancient woodlands and supports insect populations, including hoverflies and solitary bees.

Cultural References & History

Pignuts have been eaten since prehistoric times and were likely a part of the wild plant diet of early humans in Europe. In rural Britain, they were commonly foraged by children who dug them from the forest floor as a snack. Known locally in some areas as “hog nuts” or “earth chestnuts,” they appear in various folk traditions as humble, hidden treasures of the woods.

In historical herbals, the pignut was sometimes praised for its mild diuretic qualities, but it was primarily considered a simple, nourishing wild food rather than a medicinal plant.

Mythology

There is limited mythology directly tied to pignut, but in some folk beliefs, it was considered a playful or mischievous plant - difficult to find, and often said to disappear or “run away” underground if not dug carefully. Its hidden, nut-like root contributed to the idea of secret woodland bounty, and its association with pigs (who also root for them) gave rise to stories of animals leading people to forest riches.

Hazel

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Hazel
• Common Hazel
• European Hazel
• Corylus Avellana

Origin

Hazel is native to Europe and western Asia, particularly widespread in the British Isles, temperate Europe, and parts of western Russia. It thrives in temperate, deciduous woodlands, hedgerows, forest edges, and mixed scrubland. As a pioneer species, Hazel often establishes quickly in cleared or disturbed areas, contributing to early woodland succession. It prefers well-drained soils and partial shade but can tolerate a range of conditions.

Summary

Hazel is a fast-growing, multi-stemmed deciduous shrub or small tree, typically reaching 3 to 8 meters in height. It is one of the most ecologically and culturally significant woodland species in Europe. Hazel is often found in coppiced woodlands, where it is traditionally managed for its long, flexible poles. It is also valued for its edible nuts, commonly known as hazelnuts or cobnuts.

Flowering occurs very early in the year, often from January to March, making it one of the first signs of spring. Male catkins release yellow pollen, while tiny female flowers, resembling small crimson tufts, appear separately on the same plant. Nuts typically ripen from late August into October, depending on climate and conditions.

Where to find Hazel

Hazel grows widely in ancient woodlands, hedgerows, forest margins, and scrublands. It prefers moist, fertile, and well-drained soils but tolerates chalky or slightly acidic conditions. It can be found throughout the UK and much of Europe, often forming the understorey of oak or ash-dominated woods. Hazel is commonly coppiced in traditional woodland management systems, especially in southern England.

Look for multi-stemmed shrubs with a spreading habit, smooth grey-brown bark, and distinctive catkins in late winter. It often forms dense thickets or is interwoven in hedgerows.

How to Identify

Leaves are rounded to oval with a pointed tip, double-serrated edges, and a softly hairy texture. They grow alternately on the twigs and turn yellow before falling in autumn.

In late winter and early spring, male catkins appear as long yellowish-green tassels, 2–8 cm long, dangling in clusters. The much smaller female flowers are bud-like with protruding red styles, usually visible upon close inspection near the leaf buds.

Hazel bark is smooth and brown to grey, developing horizontal lenticels and peeling in patches with age. Young stems are flexible and light brown with fine hairs. Hazel typically grows as a bushy shrub with multiple trunks rather than a single central stem.

The fruit is a nut (hazelnut or cobnut), encased in a leafy husk that often extends beyond the nut. Nuts ripen in late summer to early autumn and are eagerly eaten by wildlife.

Sensory Information

Hazel leaves are soft and slightly fuzzy when young, with a mild green scent when crushed. The catkins release clouds of yellow pollen when disturbed and have a dry, papery texture. The nuts have a hard outer shell and, when cracked, reveal a creamy, aromatic kernel with a rich, slightly sweet taste.

The wood is smooth, pale, and has a faint woody scent when freshly cut. It is springy and flexible, making it ideal for crafting, hurdles, and fencing.

How to Use

Hazel has a wide range of uses, both traditional and modern.

The nuts are edible and highly nutritious, rich in fats, protein, and vitamins. They can be eaten raw, roasted, ground into flour, or pressed for oil. Harvest in late Summer or early Autumn, collecting before squirrels or birds get to them. Ripe nuts fall easily from the husk when the tree is shaken.

Leaves and catkins are not typically consumed but have been used in herbal infusions historically. Hazel bark and leaves were once used for wound-healing compresses and poultices in folk medicine.

Hazel wood is prized for its flexibility and strength. It has traditionally been used for wattle fencing, walking sticks, tool handles, thatching spars, baskets, and firewood. It is ideal for coppicing, producing new straight shoots every 7 to 10 years.

Hazel rods have long been used in the practice of divining or dowsing for water, minerals, or lost objects. Forked hazel twigs are especially favored for this purpose in folk tradition.

Non food and drink uses

Hazel’s pliable wood has been used for centuries in construction and rural crafts. Coppiced hazel is a sustainable source of renewable wood. It provides excellent materials for hurdles, wattles, pea sticks, and charcoal.

Hazel rods were traditionally used in making sheep hurdles and are still used in some living fencing and conservation practices today.

Hazel is also planted for erosion control and hedgerow restoration. It plays a key role in biodiversity, offering shelter and food for many species, including dormice, jays, woodpeckers, and butterflies like the rare hazel dormouse and the large emerald moth.

Cultural References & History

Hazel has deep roots in European folklore and myth. In Celtic traditions, it is a sacred tree associated with wisdom, inspiration, and poetic knowledge. The hazel tree appears in the ancient Irish tale of the “Salmon of Knowledge,” where the fish gains wisdom by eating hazelnuts that fell into a sacred pool from hazel trees.

In Norse mythology, hazel was associated with Thor and protection. Hazel wands were believed to guard against evil spirits and were used in rituals and magic. In British folk customs, hazel rods were used to mark property boundaries or were planted as charms.

In the medieval period, hazelnuts were symbols of fertility and used in wedding rituals. Hazel was also used in divination, particularly for finding underground water sources.

Mythology

Hazel is strongly linked with myth and magic across many European traditions. In Druidic lore, hazel was one of the nine sacred trees burned in Beltane fires. It was said to grant insight, poetic skill, and mystical vision. The tree’s association with inspiration led to its inclusion in early bardic training and ritual.

Hazel rods have long been used as dowsing tools for locating water or treasure. This practice, still used today in some rural traditions, was believed to rely on the sensitivity of the hazel’s spirit to hidden forces underground.

The sacred well of wisdom in Celtic myth was surrounded by nine hazel trees, whose nuts bestowed divine knowledge when consumed by the Salmon of Knowledge. Eating hazelnuts, therefore, symbolized the gaining of insight, clarity, and sacred truth.

Ribwort Plantain

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Ribwort Plantain
• Narrowleaf Plantain
• Ribgrass
• English Plantain
• Soldier's Herb
• Lamb's Tongue
• Plantago Lacneolata

Origin

Ribwort Plantain is native to Europe and parts of Western Asia, but it has naturalized widely across North America, Australia, New Zealand, and temperate regions worldwide. It thrives in grasslands, roadsides, gardens, and disturbed ground. Highly tolerant of trampling, poor soil, and dry conditions, it is one of the most widespread wild plants in the Northern Hemisphere.

Summary

Ribwort Plantain is a hardy, perennial herb commonly found in fields, footpaths, and meadows. It grows in a low rosette and produces tall, wirey stalks topped with dense cylindrical flower heads from early Spring into late Autumn. The leaves are long, narrow, and distinctly ribbed, giving rise to the name "ribwort." Flowering typically occurs from April to October, though leaves can be found year-round in milder climates.

It is ecologically valuable as a food source for pollinators and butterfly larvae. Traditionally valued in herbal medicine, it is also edible and occasionally used in wild foraging.

Where to find Ribwort Plantain

Look for Ribwort Plantain in open, grassy areas such as meadows, lawns, pastureland, roadside verges, and disturbed soils. It prefers sun but tolerates partial shade and is especially common in compacted or grazed soils. Found growing in low rosettes with upright flowering stems rising up to 50 cm.

How to Identify

Ribwort Plantain grows from a basal rosette with long, lance-shaped leaves measuring up to 30 cm in length. Leaves are deeply veined with 3 to 7 prominent ribs running from base to tip. The leaf margins are smooth or finely toothed, and the surface may be slightly hairy.

The flower stalks are thin and grooved, reaching up to half a meter tall. The flowering head is a tight brown spike composed of many tiny flowers. During bloom, these flowers produce delicate white stamens that form a halo-like fringe around the head. After flowering, the plant produces small, brown seed capsules.

The root system consists of a shallow fibrous network with a small taproot.

Sensory Information

The leaves are slightly astringent and bitter, with a chewy texture that becomes stringy in older specimens. When crushed, the leaves have a mild, earthy scent. The flower stalks are dry and fibrous. Young leaves are more tender and palatable, especially when steamed or cooked. Texture is leathery, especially in older plants. The flowering head feels bristly and firm.

How to Use

Young leaves can be harvested in Spring and early Summer and used raw in salads or cooked as a leafy green. Due to their fibrous nature, cooking is recommended. Ribwort can be added to soups, stews, and stir-fries as a nutritious wild green.

Leaves can be dried and stored for making herbal tea, traditionally used to treat coughs, sore throats, and mild bronchial conditions. The seeds are edible and high in mucilage, sometimes used similarly to psyllium to aid digestion or regulate bowel movements.

For wound care, fresh leaves can be crushed or chewed and applied directly to the skin to help soothe insect bites, minor cuts, burns, or inflammation. This method was commonly used in folk medicine and by field medics in the past.

To harvest, pick young, undamaged leaves from clean, unsprayed areas. Leaves can be dried or used fresh. Flower heads can also be collected for medicinal or seed use.

Non food and drink uses

The plant's mucilaginous properties make it useful in soothing skin treatments and salves. It has been used in natural cosmetics and herbal compresses for centuries. The tough fibers in the leaves have occasionally been experimented with in cordage. Historically, fresh leaves were used as makeshift dressings on the battlefield.

Cultural References & History

Ribwort Plantain is one of the most ancient and widely used medicinal herbs in European tradition. It was one of the nine sacred herbs listed in the Anglo-Saxon "Nine Herbs Charm," a tenth-century healing incantation. The name "Soldier’s Herb" refers to its use in staunching wounds and reducing swelling during wartime.

The plant was mentioned in several historical herbals and was commonly used in medieval apothecaries. Its resilience and low-growing habit made it a symbol of humility and perseverance. The distinctive flower heads were also used by children in folk games, often flicked from their stalks at each other in mock battles.

Mythology

While Ribwort Plantain does not feature heavily in specific mythologies, it is steeped in folklore. In rural Europe, it was believed to have protective qualities and was carried to ward off illness or bad luck. The Anglo-Saxons associated it with healing magic, and it was said that the plant could neutralize poisons and snake venom if properly prepared.

Some believed that placing the leaves on wounds while reciting charms could draw out infection or evil spirits. Others believed that trampling the plant insulted its spirit, which might lead to bad weather or poor health. It was long associated with Mars in astrological herbalism, linking it to blood, war, and healing.

Chicken of the Woods

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Chicken of the Woods
• Sulphur Shelf
• Laetiporus
• Laetiporus Sulphureus

Origin

Chicken of the Woods is native to Europe and North America and is widespread across the UK. It typically grows on deciduous trees, especially oak, cherry, and beech, but can also appear on conifers. It thrives in temperate woodland environments and is commonly found from late spring through autumn.

Summary

This distinctive bracket fungus is known for its bright yellow to orange shelf-like growths and meaty texture. It appears as overlapping tiers on tree trunks or stumps, often growing in large, vibrant clusters. Its name comes from its fibrous, tender flesh, which is said to resemble the texture of cooked chicken.

Chicken of the Woods tends to emerge after warm rains, with fruiting bodies developing rapidly. It is typically seen between May and October in the UK.

Where to find Chicken of the Wood

Often found growing on living or dead broadleaf trees such as oak, chestnut, yew, cherry, and willow. It can appear high up on trunks or low near the base. Woodland edges, parklands, and old tree-lined paths are common habitats. It prefers older or decaying wood and is frequently found in the same locations annually.

How to Identify

Chicken of the Woods is unmistakable due to its vibrant colour and structure. The fruiting body forms thick, semi-circular brackets that grow in overlapping layers. The upper surface is smooth and ranges from bright yellow to orange, fading with age or sun exposure.

The underside is sulphur-yellow and covered in tiny pores, not gills. The texture is soft and moist when young, becoming brittle and chalky as it matures. When cut, it reveals a pale yellow interior that may exude moisture.

Caution: Avoid specimens growing on yew, eucalyptus, or cedar, as these may absorb compounds that cause digestive upset.

Sensory Information

When fresh, it has a slightly sour, mushroomy smell and a mild taste. Its texture is dense and fibrous, with a chewiness that resembles chicken breast when cooked. The colour ranges from lemon yellow to deep orange, with the flesh remaining pale inside.

How to Use

Harvest young, tender brackets using a knife. Only the outer, softer edges are typically used for cooking, as older parts become tough and woody.

Chicken of the Woods is best when sautéed or fried and can be battered, grilled, or shredded into strips. It pairs well with bold flavours like garlic, herbs, or smoky spices. It is often used in vegan and vegetarian dishes as a meat substitute. Avoid consuming large quantities on the first try, as some people may have mild intolerances.

Do not eat raw, as it can cause stomach upset. Cook thoroughly before consumption.

Non food and drink uses

Occasionally used in natural dyeing, producing bright yellows and oranges on wool or fabric. The dense fruiting body also contributes to forest nutrient cycles as it breaks down wood.

Cultural References & History

While not as historically documented as other wild mushrooms, Chicken of the Woods has become increasingly popular among foragers and chefs due to its culinary versatility. Its bright appearance and culinary use have made it a favourite topic in modern foraging books and courses.

Mythology

Though not strongly tied to ancient folklore, its sudden appearance on trees was traditionally seen as a sign of wood decay. In modern mushroom lore, it is sometimes affectionately dubbed “the vegetarian’s chicken” and admired for its bold visual impact in the forest.

Chanterelle

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Chanterelle
• Golden Chanterelle
• Girolle (French)
• Cantharellus Cibarius

Origin

The Chanterelle is native to Europe and North America, with Cantharellus cibarius widespread in temperate forests across the UK, mainland Europe, and parts of North America. It forms symbiotic (mycorrhizal) relationships with a variety of trees and has been collected for centuries in culinary traditions, especially in Scandinavia, France, and Eastern Europe.

Summary

The Chanterelle is a fleshy, trumpet-shaped mushroom that typically fruits from midsummer to early autumn, depending on rainfall and humidity. Its striking golden-yellow to orange colour, apricot-like aroma, and wavy-edged cap make it one of the most sought-after wild mushrooms.

Chanterelles are slow-growing and often reappear in the same woodland patches year after year. Their fruiting is dependent on specific conditions, often following warm summer rains, and they are usually found scattered across the forest floor rather than in dense clusters.

Where to find Chanterelles

Chanterelles grow in broadleaf and mixed woodlands, often near beech, birch, oak, and Scots pine. They prefer mossy, well-drained, slightly acidic soils and thrive in undisturbed, shaded forest environments. In the UK, they are most commonly found in upland woodlands and ancient forest habitats.

How to Identify

Chanterelles have a convex to funnel-shaped cap with wavy, irregular edges. The cap surface is smooth and dry, and the colour varies from pale yellow to rich golden orange.

One of their key identifiers is the underside of the cap: instead of gills, Chanterelles have blunt, forked ridges (called false gills) that run down the stem. These ridges are shallow and cannot be easily separated from the flesh.

The stem is solid, not hollow, and typically the same colour or slightly paler than the cap. The flesh is firm and white inside. Chanterelles emit a fruity aroma, often compared to apricots or stone fruit.

Caution: Do not confuse with the False Chanterelle (Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca), which has darker orange gills and softer texture, or the toxic Jack-o'-Lantern (Omphalotus illudens), which has true gills and grows in dense clusters on wood.

Sensory Information

Fresh Chanterelles have a sweet, fruity aroma reminiscent of apricots. Their flavour is mild, nutty, and slightly peppery, intensifying with gentle cooking. The texture is dense and meaty when fresh, making them ideal for sautéing or slow cooking. Colour ranges from pale yellow to deep egg-yolk orange.

How to Use

Chanterelles should be carefully harvested using a knife to cut at the base, avoiding disturbance of the mycelium. Clean gently with a soft brush to remove debris; avoid soaking in water as they absorb moisture readily.

They are best sautéed in butter or oil, used in cream sauces, risottos, pasta dishes, or paired with eggs. Their subtle flavour is enhanced with minimal seasoning. Chanterelles can also be dried, though this may mellow their aroma. When rehydrated, they can be added to soups or stews. Pickled chanterelles are a traditional method of preservation in parts of Eastern Europe.

Non food and drink uses

Chanterelles are occasionally used in natural dyeing to create yellow or gold tones, though this is less common. They are not widely used outside of culinary contexts.

Cultural References & History

Highly prized in European cuisine, particularly in French and Scandinavian traditions, Chanterelles have long been considered a delicacy. In Sweden and Finland, they are frequently preserved in butter or cream and stored for winter use. French markets often feature fresh girolles during the late summer and early autumn, and they are celebrated in local foraging festivals.

Mythology

Although not prominent in ancient myths, Chanterelles (like many forest fungi) have been loosely associated with fairies and forest spirits. In folklore, their sudden appearance after rain added to the mystique of mushrooms in general, which were often believed to grow in enchanted glades or "fairy woods."

Penny Bun

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Penny Bun
• Cep
• Porcini
• Steinpilz (German)
• King Bolete
• Boletus Edulis

Origin

The Penny Bun is native to Europe, Asia, and North America. It is common in temperate woodlands across the UK, mainland Europe, and parts of North America. It thrives in deciduous and coniferous forests, forming symbiotic (mycorrhizal) relationships with trees such as oak, beech, birch, and pine.

Summary

The Penny Bun is a large, fleshy, and distinctive mushroom that appears from late summer into autumn, depending on climate and rainfall. Its fruiting season typically runs from July to October in the UK. Younger specimens are firm and round, becoming flatter and softer with age.

The cap starts pale and becomes a rich, golden brown, reminiscent of a crusty bread roll—hence the name "Penny Bun." As the season progresses, older mushrooms may become spongy or waterlogged, and prone to maggot infestation.

Where to find Summer Truffle

Penny Buns grow in a wide range of woodland habitats, especially in association with mature broadleaf trees like oak, beech, and birch, but also with conifers such as pine and spruce. Look for them growing singly or in small groups on the forest floor, often near tree roots.

How to Identify

The Penny Bun has a large, rounded cap (up to 30 cm across) that is pale to dark brown, with a smooth, slightly sticky surface when damp. Its thick stem (stipe) is bulbous, pale or tan, and often features a fine white net-like pattern (reticulation) near the top.

Underneath the cap are pale pores rather than gills; these pores are white when young, turning yellow-green with age. The flesh is thick, white, and remains unchanging when cut (unlike some toxic lookalikes).

Beware of confusing it with bitter boletes (Tylopilus felleus) or poisonous boletes, which can have red or orange pores and may stain blue when cut or bruised.

Sensory Information

The Penny Bun has a mild, nutty, and pleasant mushroom aroma. Its taste is rich, earthy, and savory, with a hint of sweetness when cooked. The cap is chestnut brown to tan; the stem is pale cream to light brown with a distinctive net-like pattern.

The white flesh stays firm and does not discolor when cut. Young specimens are best for cooking due to their dense texture.

How to Use

Harvest Penny Buns by slicing them at the base, leaving the underground mycelium intact to encourage regrowth. Check for insect holes or soft spots, as older mushrooms are often infested.

They can be eaten fresh, dried, or preserved. Drying intensifies their flavor, making them ideal for soups, sauces, risottos, and pasta. Dried Penny Buns can be rehydrated and used in stocks or ground into powder for seasoning.

Classic recipes include porcini risotto, mushroom soup, and sautéed Penny Buns with garlic and herbs. In Italy, dried "Porcini" are a valued pantry staple.

Non food and drink uses

Penny Buns are primarily culinary mushrooms and are not commonly used for non-food purposes. However, their spores and decaying bodies contribute to forest soil health.

Cultural References & History

Known as "Cèpe" in France and "Porcini" in Italy, the Penny Bun is a beloved wild food in European cuisine, featured in traditional dishes and local markets. In German-speaking countries, the “Steinpilz” (stone mushroom) is highly prized.

Historically, these mushrooms have been gathered for centuries and traded in dried form across Europe. In folklore, they were sometimes thought to mark the presence of fairies or woodland spirits due to their sudden, mysterious appearance.

Mythology

While the Penny Bun itself is not deeply embedded in myth, mushrooms in general have long held magical associations in European folklore. "Fairy rings" of mushrooms were said to be dancing circles of fairies, and some believed that gathering mushrooms improperly could offend woodland spirits.

Summer Truffle

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Summer Truffle
• Burgundy Truffle
• Black Summer Truffle
• Tuber Aestivum

Origin

The Summer Truffle is native to much of Europe, especially southern and central regions including France, Italy, Spain, and parts of the UK. It typically grows in calcareous (chalky or limestone) soils in warm, temperate climates, often forming symbiotic (mycorrhizal) relationships with the roots of certain trees.

Summary

The Summer Truffle is a subterranean fungus (hypogeous), forming rounded, knobbly, rough-textured fruiting bodies underground. They are usually harvested from late Spring through to early Autumn, with peak season in Summer. The outer skin, or peridium, is dark brown to nearly black with prominent polygonal warts. The inner flesh (gleba) is pale cream to light brown with white marbling.

As the season progresses, the aroma and flavour of the truffle intensifies, although they are generally milder than the winter truffle (Tuber melanosporum). In late summer and early autumn, the Burgundy Truffle (Tuber uncinatum), a closely related species or variety, appears and is sometimes sold under the same name.

Where to find Summer Truffle

Summer Truffles grow in symbiosis with the roots of certain deciduous trees, particularly oak, hazel, hornbeam, and beech. They are found buried just below the surface in light, well-drained, calcareous soils in woodlands, forest edges, and sometimes even in truffle orchards specifically planted for cultivation.

How to Identify

Summer Truffles are small to medium-sized (2–10 cm) rounded tubers with a rough, warty exterior that is black or dark brown. When sliced open, the interior shows a pale cream to beige color veined with white marbling. The scent is nutty, earthy, and slightly mushroom-like—much lighter than the strong aroma of winter truffles.

Care should be taken to distinguish them from other truffle species, some of which are not edible or have inferior taste.

Sensory Information

The Summer Truffle has a gentle, nutty, and slightly sweet aroma with earthy and mushroom undertones. Its flavour is mild, with hints of hazelnut, garlic, and earth. The exterior is blackish-brown with pronounced warts, while the interior is cream to light coffee-brown with delicate white veining.

How to Use

Truffles are traditionally located with the help of trained dogs or pigs, which can detect their scent underground. Once unearthed, they should be gently brushed to remove soil; washing is only done sparingly to preserve flavour. They must be consumed fresh or stored carefully in an airtight container, often with rice or eggs to absorb their aroma.

Summer Truffles are best used fresh, thinly shaved over pasta, risotto, eggs, or salads. Because their aroma is milder than other truffles, they are less suitable for long cooking and are usually added at the end of a dish or used raw. They can also be infused into oils, but should not be overly heated as this diminishes their fragrance.

Popular recipes include truffle butter, fresh truffle pasta, and truffle-infused scrambled eggs.

Non food and drink uses

Summer Truffles are not known for non-culinary use. Their value and use are almost entirely gastronomic and cultural.

Cultural References & History

Truffles have been prized since ancient times in Mediterranean cuisine and culture, referenced by Greeks and Romans as luxury foods believed to possess aphrodisiac and mystical powers. The Summer Truffle, while less valued than the Winter or White truffles, was traditionally gathered by European peasants and sold in local markets as a delicacy of the countryside.

The French and Italian culinary traditions both revere this truffle for its subtle enhancement of simple, rustic dishes like omelettes, pastas, and fresh cheese.

Mythology

In classical antiquity, truffles were thought to be formed by lightning striking the earth—a gift from the gods. The Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder considered truffles a natural marvel, though their true nature was a mystery until the discovery of their fungal origins centuries later.

Truffles in general (including Summer Truffles) have been shrouded in mystique, believed to bring fortune and fertility, and have long inspired myths about their origin and supposed magical properties.

Sugar Kelp

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Sugar Kelp
• Sweet Kelp
• Sea Belt
• Kombu Royale
• Saccharina Latissima

Origin

Sugar kelp is native to the cold, temperate waters of the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans. It is commonly found along the coasts of Northern Europe (including the British Isles, Norway, and Iceland), as well as North America, especially along the Atlantic coasts of Canada and the United States.

Summary

Sugar kelp is a large brown seaweed that can grow up to 4–5 meters in length. Its broad, strap-like fronds feature a distinctive crinkled or wavy appearance along the edges. Growth is most vigorous in Spring and Summer, making these the ideal seasons for harvesting. In Winter, growth slows, and older fronds may appear tattered or broken.

Sugar kelp stores sugars in its tissues as a protective response to cold stress, which gives it its sweet reputation. These sugars increase slightly during colder months, contributing to its "sugar" name.

Where to find Sugar Kelp

Sugar kelp grows in subtidal zones, typically from just below the low tide mark down to several meters deep. It attaches itself firmly to rocks or other hard surfaces in clean, nutrient-rich waters. It can be found along the coasts of Scotland, Ireland, Scandinavia, and North America’s Atlantic seaboard.

How to Identify

Sugar kelp has wide, golden-brown to dark brown fronds that are long, flat, and ribbon-like with crimped or wavy edges. The fronds are typically smooth and shiny when wet. A strong, tough central midrib runs the length of each frond, giving it structure. The plant is firmly attached to rocks via a small holdfast.

Sensory Information

Sugar kelp has a fresh, sea-like aroma, less intense than other seaweeds. Its taste is sweet and umami-rich, with a hint of natural sugar, especially when dried. The colour varies from golden brown to dark olive or deep brown depending on age and exposure. When dried, the fronds may develop a white, sugary bloom of natural salts and sugars on the surface.

How to Use

Sugar kelp is harvested by hand or sustainably cut from cultivated sea farms. Only the fronds are taken to allow the holdfast and stipe (stem) to regrow. After collecting, it is rinsed well in fresh water to remove grit, then dried or used fresh.

In cooking, sugar kelp is used similarly to Japanese kombu as a broth base for soups and stocks. It can be sliced and added to stir-fries, pickled, or used in salads after blanching. When dried and then rehydrated, sugar kelp becomes tender and slightly sweet. A simple use is as a seasoning: dried and ground sugar kelp can be sprinkled on dishes to add a salty, umami flavour.

Traditional recipes include kelp soup, kelp-wrapped fish, and fermented kelp condiments.

Non food and drink uses

Sugar kelp is valued for its use in cosmetics and skincare products for its mineral-rich extracts. It is also a potential source of biofuel and is being explored in biodegradable packaging materials. Historically, kelp species were burned to produce potash for soap and glass making. Some natural dyers use kelp to create subtle beige or greenish hues.

Cultural References & History

While not as prominent in traditional songs or poems as other plants, sugar kelp and other large kelps have been historically important for coastal communities in Europe and North America. In Scotland and Ireland, kelp burning for soda ash was a major industry in the 18th and 19th centuries. Kelp also played a role in Japan’s culinary history as a key ingredient in dashi broth.

In modern times, sugar kelp is experiencing renewed interest as a sustainable food and environmental resource, especially in sea farming for climate-friendly agriculture.

Mythology

In Norse and Celtic sea myths, kelp forests were thought to shelter sea creatures and spirits. Some tales spoke of "kelpie" water spirits (though unrelated in name to kelp) that haunted kelp-laden shores. Seaweeds in general were considered gifts of the ocean deities, providing both nourishment and protection from storms.

Dulse

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Dulse
• Sea Lettuce Flakes (occasionally, though this can also refer to Ulva species)
• Palmaria Palmata

Origin

Dulse grows in the cold waters of the North Atlantic and parts of the Pacific. It is especially abundant along the coasts of Ireland, Scotland, Iceland, Canada (notably Newfoundland), and northern parts of the United States. It has been harvested for centuries in these regions as a food and as a medicinal plant.

Summary

Dulse is a red algae that grows attached to rocks or larger seaweeds in the lower intertidal and subtidal zones. It forms soft, flattened fronds that can reach lengths of up to 50 cm. The plant’s growth is most vigorous in Spring and Summer, with harvesting typically done in these warmer months when the fronds are fullest and richest in nutrients. In Winter, growth slows, and the fronds may appear darker and more brittle.

Where to find Dulse

Dulse is found on exposed rocky shorelines and in the subtidal zones of the North Atlantic. In the British Isles and Ireland, it is gathered by hand during low tide. In Canada, particularly Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, dulse has been traditionally gathered and dried for preservation.

How to Identify

Dulse has broad, reddish to purplish fronds with a distinctive flattened and leathery texture. The fronds are usually branched and may show ruffled or wavy edges. When wet, they are soft and flexible; when dried, they become crispy and brittle. Dulse can sometimes be confused with other red seaweeds, but its wider, fan-like, and often translucent blades help distinguish it.

Sensory Information

Dulse has a mild sea scent, less briney than other seaweeds. When eaten raw, it has a salty, slightly smoky flavor with a savoury, umami quality often compared to bacon when crisped. The color is a rich deep red to purple, turning darker when dried. When cooked or toasted, the taste becomes stronger and more savoury.

How to Use

Dulse is hand-harvested at low tide from clean coastal rocks, taking care not to strip the holdfast to allow regrowth. After collection, it is washed thoroughly in fresh water and usually dried in the sun or with gentle heat to preserve it.

It can be eaten raw, dried, toasted, or cooked. In Irish and Scottish traditions, dulse was chewed as a snack or rehydrated in soups and stews. Toasting or frying dulse until crisp is a popular modern use, providing a bacon-like flavour for vegan dishes. It can also be ground into flakes and used as a seasoning.

Popular recipes include dulse crisps, where the dried seaweed is toasted or lightly fried until crunchy, and dulse butter, where flakes are mixed into soft butter for use on bread or vegetables.

Non food and drink uses

Dulse has been used as a source of potash and iodine historically. In some traditional crafts, it has been included in natural fertiliser mixes. Though less common than other seaweeds for dyeing, its pigment can impart reddish or purplish hues when used carefully in natural dye processes.

Cultural References & History

Dulse has a long history in Irish, Scottish, and Icelandic diets, often eaten as a snack food, medicinal plant, or wartime ration. In Newfoundland, dulse was sold dried in markets and eaten as a salty treat. References to dulse occur in Irish and Scottish folklore as a healthful and sustaining food, particularly for coastal fishing communities.

Mythology

While not as steeped in direct myth as some other plants, seaweeds like dulse were associated with life-giving properties from the sea in Celtic and Norse traditions. In some stories, seaweed offerings were made to appease sea spirits or ensure safe passage, and plants like dulse were seen as a gift of sustenance from the ocean gods.

Carageen

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Carrageen
• Carrageenan
• Irish Moss
• Sea Moss
• Chondrus Crispus

Origin

Carrageen is native to the cold waters of the North Atlantic Ocean. It is commonly found along the coastlines of Ireland, Scotland, parts of northern Europe, and the Atlantic coast of Canada. Its long history of use in these regions reflects its natural abundance in these cold, rocky shore environments.

Summary

Carrageen is a type of red seaweed with fan-shaped, branching fronds. Its appearance changes slightly with the seasons. In the spring and early summer, growth is at its peak, and the seaweed is thick and lush. During winter, the fronds may become thinner and less vibrant. The coloration of Carrageen ranges from deep reddish-purple to greenish-yellow, depending on environmental factors such as light exposure and water conditions.

Where to find Carrageen

This seaweed thrives in the intertidal zone of rocky seashores. It can be collected by hand during low tide from rocks along the coasts of Ireland, Scotland, and Atlantic Canada. When foraging, it is important to select clean, unpolluted areas to ensure the seaweed is safe for consumption.

How to Identify

Carrageen is easily recognised by its flat, fan-like fronds that branch out into cartilaginous, rubbery segments. The texture is firm but flexible, allowing the fronds to stretch slightly without breaking. Colors may vary from dark purple to reddish-brown or green, influenced by the plant's age and its environment. A mild, salty sea scent is also characteristic.

Sensory Information

Carrageen has a gentle briney smell reminiscent of the ocean. Its taste is slightly salty with a delicate, subtle marine flavour, free from bitterness. The seaweed’s colours range from rich purples and reds to lighter greens or yellows depending on growth conditions and exposure to light.

How to Use

Carrageen should be harvested by hand from clean, rocky shorelines during low tide. After collecting, rinse thoroughly in fresh water to remove sand, grit, and salt. Traditionally, Carrageen is boiled to release its natural gelling properties, which makes it an excellent thickener for soups, broths, and desserts.

A well-known recipe is Irish Carrageen Pudding, in which the seaweed is simmered in milk along with sugar and vanilla. After straining out the fronds, the liquid is chilled until it sets into a light, creamy dessert. Carrageenan extracted from this seaweed is also widely used in the commercial food industry as a natural stabilizer and thickener in products like ice cream and plant-based milks.

Non food and drink uses

Beyond culinary applications, Carrageen has been used as a thickening agent in cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. In textile crafts, it serves as a thickener for dyes, helping to create consistent colour application. Traditionally, it has also been employed in remedies for respiratory and digestive ailments.

Cultural References & History

Carrageen holds an important place in Irish cultural history. It was widely consumed during times of scarcity, such as the Irish famine, valued for its nutritional and medicinal properties. Folklore often praises the health-giving powers of this seaweed, and it has been regarded as a natural remedy to maintain strength and vitality, especially in coastal communities.

Mythology

In Celtic mythology, seaweeds like Carrageen were believed to have protective and healing powers. They were seen as gifts from the sea gods, meant to sustain and nourish the people living near the shore. Some traditions suggest that respectfully harvested seaweed brought good luck and prosperity.

Bog Myrtle

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Bog Myrtle
• Sweet Gale
• Myrica Gale

Origin

Native to cool, temperate regions of northern and western Europe and North America. It is especially prevalent in the peat bogs and moorlands of Scotland, Ireland, and northern England.

Summary

A fragrant deciduous shrub that prefers acidic, wet ground. It grows to about 1 metre tall and is characterised by slender, aromatic leaves and small catkins. It was historically one of the primary ingredients in gruit - a herb mix used in brewing before hops.

Where to find Bog Myrtle

Thrives in acidic peat bogs, wet moorlands, and damp heathlands. Most abundant in Scotland and the west of Ireland.

How to Identify

Low, bushy shrub with slender, pointed leaves with a silvery underside. Brown catkins appear before the leaves in spring. Emits a sweet, spicy scent when crushed.

Sensory Information

Leaves are resinous, spicy, and warm-scented. The flavour is slightly bitter and aromatic with a peppery, balsamic undertone.

How to Use

Leaves are used to flavour ales and stews. Dried foliage may be used in herbal teas or infusions, though sparingly. Historically blended with other herbs in food preservation.

Non food and drink uses

Known for its insect-repelling properties. Used in bedding, clothing sachets, and traditional household fumigation.

Cultural References & History

Once central to traditional brewing practices in Celtic regions. Known as a symbol of purification and love.

Mythology

Used in rituals to attract a lover or purify spaces. In folklore, it was believed to encourage prophetic dreams and keep negative forces at bay.

Wood Avens

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Wood Avens
• Herb Bennet
• Geum Urbanum

Origin

Native to much of Europe and western Asia. Common throughout the UK, especially in shaded and semi-shaded areas such as woodland edges and hedge banks.

Summary

Wood avens is a perennial herb in the rose family, forming leafy rosettes at the base with tall, branched flowering stems. It blooms from May to August, producing small, yellow, five-petalled flowers followed by burr-like seed heads.

Where to find Wood Avens

Common in woodland edges, urban greenspaces, damp gardens, hedge bottoms, and disturbed soils. Prefers humus-rich and semi-shaded environments.

How to Identify

Basal leaves are round-lobed, with larger end leaflets. The flower resembles a small yellow buttercup. Seed heads develop into reddish burrs with hooked tips that cling to animal fur or clothing. The roots smell of cloves when dug up.

Sensory Information

Root aroma is spicy and clove-like, due to the presence of eugenol. Flavour is similarly warming and aromatic.

How to Use

Roots can be dried and used to flavour drinks and broths. Historically added to ale and wines for aromatic depth. Not to be confused with similar species that lack scent.

Non food and drink uses:

Roots were once used in incense and as natural moth repellents. Occasionally used in floral bundles for scent.

Cultural References & History

Mentioned in medieval herbals as “Herb Bennet,” meaning “Blessed Herb.” Thought to symbolise divine protection.

Mythology

In folklore, it was believed to repel evil spirits and wild beasts. Roots were worn for protection and planted near dwellings to bless the household.

Juniper

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Juniper
• Juniperus Communis

Origin

Juniper is a native evergreen found throughout the Northern Hemisphere, from North America to Europe and parts of Asia. In Britain, it is one of the few native conifers and has a long history of cultural and culinary use.

Summary

Juniper is a slow-growing, evergreen shrub or small tree with needle-like leaves and berry-like cones, often called “juniper berries.” These take around 2–3 years to ripen, turning from green to blue-black. The shrub provides food and shelter for birds and insects and thrives in exposed, rocky places.

Where to find Juniper

Prefers dry, calcareous grasslands, heathlands, scrubby slopes, and open woodland. It is found across upland Britain, particularly in the Scottish Highlands, Cumbria, and Yorkshire Dales.

How to Identify

Needles grow in whorls of three and are sharp and prickly. The fruit starts green and matures to a deep purple-black with a waxy bloom. The plant has a distinctive, aromatic smell when the needles or berries are crushed.

Sensory Information

The scent is strong, resinous, and piney with citrus tones. The flavour of ripe berries is peppery, slightly sweet, and highly aromatic.

How to Use

Ripe berries are used to flavour game meats, sauces, pickles, and are essential in gin making. They can be dried or used fresh. Young green berries are not typically used. A small amount goes a long way due to its potency. Juniper is a protected plant under national legislation and site-specific designation in the UK. 

Non food and drink uses

Wood is aromatic and traditionally used for incense, fumigation, and woodturning. Twigs were used in ceremonial fires and cleansing rituals.

Cultural References & History

Juniper has been used since antiquity for food preservation, spiritual purification, and even protection from pestilence. In medieval Europe, branches were hung in doorways to ward off evil.

Mythology

Considered sacred to Norse gods and often linked to Thor. In Highland traditions, burning juniper was part of house-cleansing rituals. Its presence was said to protect dwellings and promote healing.

Sweet Cicely

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Sweet Cicely
• Myrrhis Odorata

Origin

Sweet cicely is native to Central and Southern Europe and has become naturalised in the British Isles, especially in northern and western parts. It favours cool, moist, and lightly shaded environments.

Summary

A hardy perennial of the carrot family, sweet cicely has bright green, feathery leaves and tall stems bearing large umbels of small white flowers from April to June. It grows up to 1 metre tall and often begins to flower before many other umbellifers. Its distinctive aniseed scent sets it apart from similar plants.

Where to find Sweet Cicely

It often grows near old settlements, farmyards, roadsides, damp pastures, hedgerows, and shaded woodland margins. In some regions, it escapes from gardens and becomes well established in the wild.

How to Identify

Feathery, fern-like leaves with white blotches at the base. The plant has hollow, grooved stems and dark brown, curved seeds with longitudinal ridges. It is one of the earliest-flowering umbellifers.

Sensory Information

Both the leaves and seeds have a pronounced sweet, aniseed or liquorice aroma. The flavour is fresh and slightly sugary, making it a natural sweetener.

How to Use

Traditionally used to sweeten stewed fruits like rhubarb or gooseberries. Leaves, stems, and seeds are edible. Young roots can be roasted. It is a culinary herb valued for both its flavour and digestive properties.

Non food and drink uses

Employed in aromatic sachets and historically in brewing as a flavouring herb. Sometimes cultivated as a fragrant border plant.

Cultural References & History

Sweet cicely was prized in monastic herb gardens and used widely before the arrival of cane sugar in Europe. Its name reflects its pleasant scent and taste.

Mythology

Symbolic of maternal protection and sweetness, it was associated with gentleness and care in northern European herbal folklore.

Wild Angelica

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Wild Angelica
• Angelica Sylvestris

Origin

Native to Europe and parts of Asia, wild angelica is commonly found across the UK and other temperate regions. It thrives in damp environments and is a common sight in wet meadows, stream banks, and woodland clearings.

Summary:

Wild angelica is a tall, biennial or short-lived perennial of the carrot family. It produces a rosette of leaves in its first year, and in the second year sends up tall, hollow stems with umbels of pinkish or purplish-white flowers. The plant typically flowers from July to September.

Where to find Wild Angelica

Found in damp ground - marshes, fens, wet woodlands, ditches, and riversides. It thrives in moist soils with partial sunlight.

How to Identify

Sturdy, hollow, purple-tinged stems reaching up to 2 meters tall. Leaves are large, bipinnate and toothed. Umbels of flowers have 20–40 rays and are tinged pale purple or white. The scent is aromatic and somewhat musky.

Sensory Information

Aromatic, musky smell. The flavor is earthy and slightly sweet, with hints of aniseed.

How to Use

Young stems and leaf stalks can be blanched and used like celery, or candied. Seeds are used sparingly as a spice. Root can be dried and used for flavoring, though less commonly than garden ange

Non food and drink uses

Grown ornamentally and used in natural dyeing and fragrance blends.

Cultural References & History

Used in monastic herb gardens and often grown in physic gardens across Europe. Sometimes confused with garden angelica (Angelica archangelica).

Mythology

Believed to ward off evil and disease. In folklore, angelica was a protective plant, said to bloom on the day of Archangel Michael’s revelation.

Sweet Woodruff

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Sweet Woodruff
• Galium odoratum

Origin

Native to Europe, North Africa, and western Asia. Common in shady, deciduous woodlands.

Summary

Sweet Woodruff is a low, spreading perennial with whorls of lanceolate leaves on square stems. In late spring, it bears loose umbels of small white, four-petaled flowers.

Where to find Sweet Woodruff

Whorls of 6–8 glossy leaves; square hairy stems; clusters of star-shaped white flowers; pungent hay-like scent when dried.

How to Identify

• Whorls of lance-shaped leaves
• Small white star-shaped flowers
• Square stems
• Hay-like scent when dried

Sensory Information

Fresh, green scent when picked. Dried plant develops sweet, vanilla-like aroma from coumarin.

How to Use

Used in spring punches (notably in Germany), cordials, or as a garnish. Traditionally dried for sachets and herbal decorations. Coumarin is toxic and products generally discontinued in EU, so only use under advice.

Non food and drink uses

Used in potpourri, bedding, and perfumes. Historically placed in linens to scent clothing. Also used as woodland groundcover in shade gardens; yields tan and gray-green dyes.

Cultural References & History

Popular in medieval herb gardens for scenting rooms and celebrating May Day.

Mythology

Linked with love and spring festivals. Also associated with sweetness, peace, and fidelity. It was thought to bring tranquil dreams and ward off nightmares.

Yarrow

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Yarrow
• Achillea millefolium

Origin

Native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Widespread in the UK.

Summary

Yarrow is a hardy perennial forming upright stems with feathery, bipinnate leaves. From June to September, it displays flat-topped clusters of white (sometimes pink) ray and disk florets.

Where to find Yarrow

Common in meadows, roadsides, pastures, and open grassy fields on well-drained soils.

How to Identify

Leaves are finely divided into thread-like segments; flower heads are corymbs of small composite blooms; stems may be slightly hairy and reddish at joints.

Sensory Information

Leaves emit a strong, sweet-herb aroma and a notably bitter, astringent taste. The flowers carry a mild honey note.

How to Use

Flowers and leaves can be brewed into an aromatic tea or used sparingly to flavour bitter beers and liqueurs. Fresh foliage was historically strewn as a pest repellent.

Non food and drink uses

Yarrow stalks make natural floral supports. It serves as a companion plant, repelling pests and attracting beneficial insects. Dried flower clusters produce yellow and green dyes.

Cultural References & History

Yarrow’s association with Achilles of Troy gave it the genus name; medieval battlefields often had yarrow strewn to staunch wounds. It appears in European divination and love rituals.

Mythology

Yarrow figures in Celtic and Norse lore as a sacred healing herb, used in protective charms and midsummer ceremonies.

Nettle

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Nettle
• Stinging Nettle
• Urtica dioica

Origin

Native to Europe, Asia, and North Africa; now naturalized globally. Favors nitrogen-rich habitats.

Summary

Stinging Nettle is a perennial herb that emerges each spring from rhizomes. It grows 0.5–1.5 m tall, with opposite serrated leaves covered in stinging hairs. In summer, it bears drooping clusters of inconspicuous greenish flowers.

Where to find Nettle

Common in nitrogen-rich soils, near old buildings, along field edges, and woodland borders.

How to Identify

Opposite, ovate-to-lanceolate leaves with serrated margins; hollow stems and leaves densely covered in stinging trichomes; hanging panicles of tiny flowers.

Sensory Information

Fresh foliage delivers a sharp sting on contact. Once cooked or dried, nettles lose their sting and yield a mild, spinach-like flavour with an earthy green aroma.

How to Use

Wear gloves to harvest young top leaves in spring. Blanch or cook to remove sting. Use in soups, stews, teas, or as a spinach substitute.

Non food and drink uses

Nettle stems provide strong bast fibers used historically for textiles and cordage. Leaves can produce green dyes; infusion serves as a nutrient-rich plant feed and insect repellent.

Cultural References & History

Revered in medieval herbals, nettles were one of the Nine Sacred Herbs of Anglo-Saxon lore. They featured in rural traditions for strength and protection.

Mythology

Nettles were believed to offer protection and were placed in doorways or worn to guard against evil.

Hairy Bittercress

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Hairy Bittercress
• Cardamine hirsuta

Origin

Native to Europe and Asia. Now common across much of the world, especially in disturbed soils and garden beds.

Summary

A small annual or biennial herb that germinates quickly and produces seeds explosively. Most noticeable in late winter to Spring, especially in mild climates. Bears tiny white, four-petaled flowers, followed by narrow seed pods that explosively eject seeds.

Where to find Hairy Bittercress

Common in gardens, lawns, paving cracks, pots, and other damp, disturbed ground in partial shade.

How to Identify

Look for the basal rosette of rounded leaflets with a larger terminal leaflet and fine hairs on the petioles; small white cross-shaped flowers; and long, narrow siliques that “pop” when ripe.

Sensory Information

Peppery, cress-like flavour. Fresh, green aroma.

How to Use

Harvest young leaves and flowering tops for a spicy salad green or garnish. Use sparingly to add a peppery note to soups, omelets, and sandwiches. Used similarly to watercress,

Non food and drink uses

Valued by early Spring pollinators; otherwise mainly regarded as a garden weed.

Cultural References & History

Known in Anglo-Saxon herbals as one of the Nine Sacred Herbs. Often referenced in literature for its explosive seed dispersal.

Mythology

In folk tradition, Hairy Bittercress symbolizes Spring renewal and resilience.

Ground Elder

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Ground Elder
• Bishop’s Weed
• Aegopodium podagraria

Origin

Native to Europe and western Asia. It has naturalised in many temperate regions and is widespread across the UK.

Summary:

Ground Elder is a perennial herb that emerges in early Spring with erect, hollow, grooved stems bearing tri-foliate toothed leaves. In late Spring, it produces flat umbels of small white flowers. Extensive underground rhizomes allow it to form dense mats of foliage until die-back in Autumn.

Where to find Ground Elder

Common in hedgerows, woodland edges, old gardens, and shaded bank sides with fertile, moist soil.

How to Identify:

Foragers will note the distinctive whorls of three triangular, toothed leaflets, hollow ridged stems, and compound umbels of five-petaled white flowers in early summer. Rhizomes are cream-colored and slender.

Sensory Information

Young leaves have a mild parsley-like aroma and a slightly tangy, celery-like taste. Mature foliage becomes more bitter and fibrous.

How to Use

Harvest tender Spring shoots before flowering. Use raw in salads or blend into pesto. Cooked, the leaves can substitute for spinach in soups and stews. Avoid overharvesting to preserve the colony.

Non food and drink uses:

Ground Elder’s rapid ground-covering habit made it popular as an ornamental shade groundcover. Variegated cultivars appear in garden centres. Its rhizomes improve soil structure when composted.

Cultural References & History

Romans and medieval gardeners valued Ground Elder as a pot herb and folk remedy (its Latin name podagraria reflects its traditional use for gout). Monastic gardens cultivated it widely, giving rise to the name Bishop’s Weed.

Mythology

Not widely referenced in mythology, but often symbolises persistence and unwanted spread in folklore due to its invasive nature.

Scots Pine

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Scots Pine
• Pinus Sylvestris

Origin

Native to Europe and Asia. It is the only native pine in the British Isles and forms iconic Caledonian forests.

Summary

A tall evergreen conifer with orange-red upper bark and paired blue-green needles. Produces male and female cones. Growth is year-round but slows in winter.

Where to find Scots Pine

Widespread in pockets of the Scottish Highlands, plantations, heathland, and sandy soils.

How to Identify

• Tall with straight trunk and flaking red-orange bark
• Paired needles (5–7 cm), twisted
• Small rounded cones

Sensory Information

Needles have a sharp, clean pine scent. The resin is sticky and strongly aromatic.

How to Use

Young needles and buds can be used in teas, syrups, and wild remedies but ingestion should be limited and properly identified.

Non food and drink uses

Major source of timber, turpentine, and natural resin. Used in traditional crafts and fire lighting. Resin has been used traditionally for incense and waterproofing also.

Cultural References & History

A keystone species in Highland ecology. Revered in Scottish folklore and used in Yule traditions.

Mythology

Seen as a protective and purifying tree. Pine groves were sacred in Celtic and Norse traditions.

Douglas Fir

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Douglas Fir
• Pseudotsuga menziesii

Origin

Native to western North America. Widely planted in the UK for forestry since the 19th century.

Summary

A tall, fast-growing evergreen conifer with distinctive cones and aromatic foliage. New needles emerge in spring; cones ripen by autumn.

Where to find Douglas Fir

Planted forest stands, parks, and managed woodlands.

How to Identify

• Soft green needles with citrus-pine scent
• Cones with three-pronged bracts
• Rough bark with deep fissures

Sensory Information

Needles have a zesty, citrus-pine aroma. Taste is refreshing and resinous.

How to Use

Young needles can be used to flavour syrups, teas, or infuse vinegars. Often used in wild culinary creations.

Non food and drink uses

Important in timber and paper industries. Needles and cones used in natural decorations and crafts.

Cultural References & History

Named after David Douglas, a Scottish botanist who introduced it to Europe. Widely valued in reforestation.

Mythology

In Native American lore, the cone bracts were said to be the tails of mice hiding from fire, giving the tree protective symbolism.

European Larch

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• European Larch
• Larix Decidua

Origin

Native to the mountains of central Europe. Introduced widely in the UK in the 17th century for timber and landscaping.

Summary

A deciduous conifer, unusual in that it sheds its needles in Autumn. Bright green needles emerge in spring, followed by small pink female cones and yellow male catkins. Needles turn golden yellow before falling.

Where to find European Larch

Planted woodlands, forest plantations, and upland areas.

How to Identify

• Soft, light green needles in tufts on short shoots
• Small cones with turned-back scales
• Tall straight trunk and scaly bark

Sensory Information

Needles have a light, resinous, citrus scent. Bark smells faintly spicy when bruised.

How to Use

Young shoots and needles can be used in infusions or as a wild seasoning. Not commonly foraged but occasionally used in craft distilling.

Non food and drink uses

Used extensively in timber, traditional construction, and for resins. Larch resin (Venice turpentine) was historically used in varnishes.

Cultural References & History

Valued for its strength and resilience, larch was used in historical shipbuilding and alpine architecture.

Mythology

In Alpine traditions, larch trees were believed to protect against lightning and evil spirits.

Wild Garlic

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Wild Garlic
• Ramsons
• Allium Ursinum

Origin

Native to Europe and parts of Asia. Common throughout damp woodlands and shaded hedgerows in Spring.

Summary

A perennial plant that forms carpets of green leaves in Spring, followed by white star-like flowers. Dies back by early Summer.

Where to find Wild Garlic

Damp deciduous woodland, shady banks, and hedgerows.

How to Identify

• Broad, lance-shaped leaves with strong garlic scent
• White star-shaped flowers in umbels
• Bulbous root structure

Sensory Information

Strong garlicky aroma. Leaves have a pungent, savoury taste, flowers are milder and slightly sweet.

How to Use

Pick young leaves before flowering for best flavour. Use in pestos, soups, breads, and savoury spreads. Flowers can be used decoratively.

Non food and drink uses

Occasionally used in natural cleaning and insect deterrents.

Cultural References & History

Long valued in traditional seasonal cooking, especially in Spring rituals and wild food festivals.

Mythology

Associated with bears in folklore (from 'ursinum'), it was believed to be eaten by bears after hibernation to regain strength.

Garlic Mustard

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Garlic Mustard
• Jack-by-the-Hedge
• Alliaria Petiolata

Origin

Native to Europe and western Asia, now widespread in the UK and parts of North America. Prefers shady woodland margins and hedgerows.

Summary

A biennial plant with garlicky-scented leaves. The first-year rosette overwinters, followed by tall flowering stalks with small white flowers in the second year. Seeds ripen in Summer.

Where to find Garlic Mustard

Shady, damp hedgerows, woodland paths, and field edges.

How to Identify

• Heart-shaped, crinkled leaves with a garlicky aroma when crushed
• Small four-petalled white flowers in Spring
• Upright seed pods later in Summer

Sensory Information

Mild garlic scent when leaves are crushed. Taste is a cross between garlic and mustard with a spicy finish.

How to Use

Harvest young leaves in early Spring before flowering. Use in pestos, salads, or chopped into savoury dishes. Flowers and young seed pods are also edible.

Non food and drink uses

Crushed leaves have been used in folk cleaning practices and as a garden companion plant.

Cultural References & History

Used historically in rustic cookery. Its garlicky quality made it a seasoning herb before imported garlic became widely available.

Mythology

Garlic mustard was believed to ward off malevolent forces and was included in protective Spring garlands in some folk traditions.

Sorrel

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Sorrel
• Common Sorrel
• Rumex Acetosa

Origin

Native to Europe and parts of Asia, sorrel is found in meadows, grasslands, and roadsides throughout the British Isles.

Summary

Sorrel is a perennial herb with arrow-shaped leaves and tall flowering stalks bearing red-tinged seed heads in Summer. Its growth begins in Spring, with leaves dying back in Winter.

Where to find Sorrel

Grows in grasslands, meadows, pastures, and verges with well-drained soils.

How to Identify

• Long, arrow-shaped green leaves
• Slightly sour, lemony taste
• Slender flowering stems with red-tinted flower clusters in Summer

Sensory Information

Sharp, lemony taste with a green, slightly tangy aroma. Leaves are smooth and tender when young.

How to Use

Pick young leaves in Spring and early Summer. Add raw to salads or cook gently in soups and sauces. Use sparingly due to oxalic acid content.

Non food and drink uses

Sorrel has been used as a natural green dye and historically as a stain remover due to its acidic nature.

Cultural References & History

Sorrel has long been part of traditional cooking in European peasant dishes. It was used in place of citrus before lemons were widely available.

Mythology

Sorrel symbolised Spring's sharp freshness in Celtic traditions and was associated with vitality and cleansing.

Cleavers

Name – common name/s and Latin name

• Cleavers
• Goosegrass
• Stickyweed
• Galium Aparine

Origin

Cleavers is native to Europe, North Africa, and parts of Asia, and has naturalised in many temperate parts of the world. It thrives in a variety of disturbed soils, especially hedgerows and woodland edges.

Summary:

Cleavers is a scrambling annual plant covered in tiny hooked hairs that allow it to cling to clothing, animals, and nearby plants. It germinates in late Winter to early spring, with rapid leafy growth that climbs over other vegetation. It dies back in late Summer.

Where to find Cleavers

Common in hedgerows, grassy banks, field margins, and woodland edges. It prefers moist, nutrient-rich soils.

How to Identify

• Whorls of 6–8 narrow leaves around square stems
• Stems and leaves covered in tiny backward-pointing hooks
• Tiny white to greenish flowers in small clusters
• Sticky seeds that cling to fur and fabric

Sensory Information

Cleavers have a mild green scent and taste when young. Texture is rough or sticky due to the hooked hairs.

How to Use

Harvest the young shoots before flowering in Spring. Use fresh in teas, juices, or lightly steamed. It is commonly used fresh rather than dried.

Non food and drink uses:

The sticky seeds inspired traditional children's games, and the whole plant has been used in sieves or as a rough brush.

Cultural References & History

Cleavers has long been recognised in country traditions, especially for its clinging nature, often called "sticky willy" by children. It was also used in old washing practices.

Mythology

Folklore associated cleavers with purification and was sometimes used symbolically in rites of Spring rituals.

Wild Mint

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Wild Mint
• Water Mint (Mentha aquatica)
• Field Mint (Mentha Arvensis)
• Mentha

Origin

Native across Europe, North Africa, and temperate Asia. Different species of wild mint are common in damp habitats across the UK and beyond.

Summary

Wild mints are herbaceous perennials that spread via creeping rhizomes. They produce square stems, paired leaves, and clusters of purple or pinkish flowers in Summer. Growth begins in Spring and dies back after first frost.

Where to find Wild Mint

Common in damp ground - near streams, marshes, wet meadows, and ditches.

How to Identify

• Square stems typical of the mint family
• Paired, oval, toothed leaves
• Small tubular flowers in clusters (often lilac or pink)
• Strong minty scent when crushed

Sensory Information

Strong menthol aroma and cooling taste. Leaf colour ranges from deep green to slightly purplish; flowers are typically pale violet to pink.

How to Use

Pick fresh leaves and tips before flowering for best flavour. Use in teas, infusions, jellies, or to add freshness to savoury dishes. Leaves can also be dried for later use.

Non food and drink uses

Mint oils are used in aromatherapy, balms, and natural insect repellents. The dried herb can also be included in sachets or potpourri.

Cultural References & History

Mint has long been valued in cooking, folklore, and rituals of hospitality. In ancient times, it was scattered on floors to freshen rooms and uplift spirits.

Mythology

According to Greek myth, Minthe was a nymph transformed into the fragrant herb by Persephone. Mint symbolised purity, refreshment, and welcome in many cultures.

Silver Birch

Name - common name/s and Latin name:

• Silver Birch
• Lady of the Woods
• Betula Pendula

Origin

Native to Europe and parts of Asia, silver birch is widespread across the UK. It is a pioneer species that thrives in poor soils and is often one of the first trees to colonise open land.

Summary

Silver birch is a deciduous tree with papery white bark, triangular leaves, and catkins. Leaves emerge in Spring, with catkins appearing at the same time. In autumn, the leaves turn golden before falling. The tree is bare in winter, showing its pale trunk and graceful branches.

Where to find Silver Birch

Common in woodland, heathland, parks, and on moorland edges. Prefers well-drained, often acidic soils.

How to Identify

• White, peeling bark with black fissures
• Slender, pendulous twigs
• Triangular, toothed leaves
• Catkins in Spring (long male catkins and shorter female)

Sensory Information

The bark has a subtle, resinous aroma. Sap, when tapped in Spring, is slightly sweet. The tree has striking white bark and fresh green leaves.

How to Use

In early Spring, birch sap can be tapped from the trunk in moderation and used fresh or fermented. The young leaves can be dried and used for tea. Always seek landowner permission and avoid harming the tree.

Non food and drink uses

The bark has been used for fire-lighting, tanning, and in traditional crafts. Birch tar was historically made from bark for waterproofing and adhesives.

Cultural References & History

A symbol of renewal and purity, silver birch appears in poetry and seasonal customs. Birch branches were used in May Day rituals and as “besom” brooms in folk tradition.

Mythology

The birch tree is associated with new beginnings and is sacred in many northern European mythologies. In Celtic tree lore, it represents the first month of the ogham calendar. Young leaves and catkins can be used in distilled spirits.

Elderflower

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Elderflower
• Elder
• Sambucus Nigra

Origin

Native to most of Europe and parts of western Asia and northern Africa, elder is commonly found in hedgerows, scrub, and woodland edges.

Summary

A small tree or large shrub, elder produces clusters of small white flowers in late Spring to early Summer (May–June), followed by small purple-black berries in autumn. It is deciduous, with leaves falling in winter.

Where to find Elderflower

Widespread in rural and urban settings throughout the UK and Europe. Often found in disturbed ground, waste areas, and hedgerows.

How to Identify

• Large flat-topped clusters of small creamy-white flowers
• Compound leaves with 5–7 leaflets
• Soft, corky bark
• Clusters of dark berries in autumn

Sensory Information

Flowers have a strong, floral, musky scent. The flavour is fragrant and slightly citrusy. Flowers are creamy white; berries are dark purple to black.

How to Use

Harvest flowers on dry, sunny days before they brown. Shake out insects and use immediately or dry. Flowers are commonly used to make cordials, syrups, fritters, and sparkling drinks. Only the flowers and cooked berries are used - raw parts of the plant may be harmful.

Non food and drink uses

Elderflowers can be used in cosmetic preparations like floral waters. The berries have historically been used as a source of natural dye.

Cultural References & History

The elder tree features heavily in European folklore. It was considered both protective and sacred, often associated with the cycle of life and death. In rural traditions, elder trees were not to be cut without asking the Elder Mother’s permission.

Mythology

The Elder Mother, a protective spirit, was believed to inhabit elder trees. In some tales, cutting an elder without due respect could bring bad luck or illness.

Honeysuckle

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Honeysuckle
• Woodbine
• Lonicera Periclymenum (European species)

Origin

Honeysuckle is native to Europe, North Africa, and parts of western Asia. The common wild honeysuckle (Lonicera periclymenum) is widespread across the British Isles and temperate Europe, especially in woodlands and hedgerows.

Summary

This climbing deciduous shrub twines through hedges and trees, with fragrant tubular flowers blooming from late spring through summer. The flowers change from creamy white to pale yellow as they age. In autumn, bright red berries appear. Leaves are shed in winter.

Where to find Honeysuckle

Found in hedgerows, woodland edges, scrub, and garden borders. It thrives in partial shade and climbs by twining around trees or structures.

How to Identify

• Creamy white and yellow tubular flowers in pairs
• Sweet, jasmine-like scent
• Red berries in autumn (not for consumption)
• Oval, opposite leaves

Sensory Information

Flowers are intensely fragrant, especially at dusk. The nectar has a sweet taste, often sucked directly from the base of the flower. Colors range from creamy white to yellow with a hint of pink or purple in some forms.

How to Use

Pick flowers in early summer on dry days. They can be used to infuse syrups, vinegars, or floral waters. Honeysuckle flowers are sometimes used to flavour teas or desserts, but only specific species (like L. periclymenum) are suitable - others may be toxic.

Non food and drink uses

The plant is commonly used ornamentally and for wildlife gardening. Its twisting stems were occasionally used in traditional crafts.

Cultural References & History

Featured in British poetry and Shakespearean works, honeysuckle is traditionally a symbol of fidelity and enduring love. It was planted near cottages and doors for its scent and charm.

Mythology

In folklore, honeysuckle grown around doorways was thought to protect the home and invite good fortune. Its clinging growth symbolised strong emotional bonds.

Gorse

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Gorse
• Furze
• Whin
• Ulex Europaeus

Origin

Gorse is native to western Europe and especially common in the British Isles. It has spread to parts of North America, New Zealand, and Australia where it can become invasive.

Summary

Gorse is an evergreen shrub that produces vibrant yellow flowers, primarily in spring but often sporadically throughout the year. The plant is highly spiny and can grow up to 3 metres in height, forming dense thickets.

Where to find Gorse

Common on heathland, moorland, coastal cliffs, forest edges, and roadsides, particularly in nutrient-poor, sandy or acidic soils.

How to Identify

• Dense green shrub with sharp spines instead of leaves
• Bright yellow, coconut-scented flowers
• Often found in large, impenetrable patches

Sensory Information

Flowers have a strong coconut or vanilla scent. The taste is subtly sweet and pea-like when raw. Flowers are deep yellow, often with orange tinges.

How to Use

Only the flowers are typically used. Carefully pluck them in spring to avoid the sharp spines. They can be used in cordials, syrups, and wines, or added raw to salads.

Non food and drink uses

Gorse has been used for fuel due to its high oil content and flammability. Its ashes were historically used to produce potash for soap making. The flowers may also yield yellow dye.

Cultural References & History

In Celtic tradition, gorse was one of the three sacred fire plants. It was burned to cleanse land and promote fertility. Gorse was also a symbol of light and endurance in British folklore.

Mythology

Gorse was believed to invite good spirits and drive out malevolent ones when burned. In some traditions, it was associated with solar deities and springtime celebrations.

Dandelion

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Dandelion
• Lion's Tooth
• Traxacum Officinale

Origin

Dandelion is native to Eurasia but is now one of the most widespread plants across temperate zones worldwide. It is highly adaptable and grows in almost any sunny, open habitat.

Summary

This hardy perennial forms a basal rosette of toothed leaves and produces bright yellow flower heads that mature into spherical seed puffs. It flowers throughout spring and summer, and often again in autumn. The plant is one of the earliest to emerge in spring.

Where to find Pineapple Weed

Found in lawns, meadows, roadsides, pastures, parks, and disturbed soil almost everywhere in the temperate world.

How to Identify

• Bright yellow composite flower on a single hollow stem
• Deeply toothed rosette leaves
• Milky latex sap when stem is broken
• White globe of seeds (pappus) after flowering

Sensory Information

Leaves have a mildly bitter, earthy taste. Flowers are sweet and floral. Stems exude a slightly rubbery scent when snapped. Flowers are bright yellow; leaves are green with jagged edges.

How to Use

All parts are edible. Young leaves can be eaten raw or cooked. Flowers can be used for making wine, fritters, or syrups. Roots are best roasted and used as a coffee substitute. Always harvest from clean, pesticide-free areas.

Non food and drink uses

Flowers can produce a yellow dye. The latex from stems was historically investigated for rubber production. Dandelions also contribute to soil aeration and attract pollinators.

Cultural References & History

Dandelions are symbols of endurance and transformation. Children often blow the seed heads to "make wishes." In folklore, dandelions were thought to represent the sun and were used in simple weather divination.

Mythology

Dandelions have been associated with Jupiter in medieval herbals and were believed to bring abundance. In some traditions, they were thought to connect the living with the spirit world through dreams or omens.

Pineapple Weed

Name - common name/s and Latin name:

• Pineapple Weed
• Wile Chamomile
• Matricaria discoidea

Origin

Pineapple Weed is native to northeastern Asia and parts of North America but is now widespread throughout temperate regions, particularly in compacted soils and disturbed ground.

Summary

A low-growing annual plant, pineapple weed produces cone-shaped yellow-green flower heads from May through September. Its finely divided, feathery leaves resemble those of chamomile. The plant thrives in dry, disturbed sites and continues blooming through the summer.

Where to find Pineapple Weed

Commonly found in footpaths, gravel driveways, roadsides, and other disturbed areas. It grows well in compacted soils and places where few other plants thrive.

How to Identify

• Short, bushy growth habit
• Bright yellow-green conical flower heads without petals
• Finely divided, chamomile-like leaves
• Pineapple scent when crushed

Sensory Information

Strong pineapple aroma when crushed. The taste is floral, slightly sweet, with a hint of bitterness. Flowers are greenish-yellow; leaves are feathery and mid-green.

How to Use

Harvest flower heads when fully developed but before browning. Can be dried for herbal teas or used fresh in infusions and syrups. Also suitable for flavouring desserts or homemade drinks.

Non food and drink uses

Due to its aromatic properties, it has been used in natural insect-repelling sachets and homemade potpourri.

Cultural References & History

Traditionally used by Indigenous peoples of North America for calming teas and simple flavourings. While not featured prominently in European folklore, it is known informally as a “people’s chamomile.”

Mythology

There is limited mythology associated with pineapple weed, but it is often linked symbolically to resilience and resourcefulness due to its habit of thriving in harsh, trampled places.

Meadowsweet

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Meadowsweet
• Queen of the Meadow
• Bridewort
• Filipendula Ulmaria

Origin

Meadowsweet is native to Europe and western Asia and has become naturalised in parts of North America. It grows in damp environments such as wet meadows, riverbanks, and ditches. Historically, it has been a valued plant in British and Celtic traditions.

Summary

Meadowsweet is a tall perennial herb that produces clusters of small, creamy-white flowers with a strong, sweet scent. The plant blooms from June to August. In Spring, its basal leaves appear first, followed by reddish stems and flowering tops by early summer. The foliage becomes less vibrant and begins to decay by late Autumn.

Where to find Meadowsweet

Meadowsweet commonly grows in moist, lowland habitats such as marshes, stream edges, and damp meadows. It is widespread across the UK and Europe.

How to Identify

• Flower heads: dense clusters of tiny cream-colored flowers
• Leaves: deeply veined, dark green on top, downy white underneath
• Scent: sweet, similar to almonds or honey
• Stems: reddish, grooved, and upright

Sensory Information

The flowers have a rich, sweet scent, often likened to honey or almonds. The taste is floral and slightly bitter if eaten raw. Visually, the plant is marked by its creamy-white flowers and dark green, feathery leaves.

How to Use

Only the flowers and young leaves are generally used. Pick flowers on a dry day when fully open. They can be dried for tea or infused into syrups, vinegars, and cordials. Flowers can also be used to flavour desserts and drinks.

Non food and drink uses

Meadowsweet flowers were once strewn on floors for their fragrance. They are sometimes used in handmade potpourri and herbal crafts.

Cultural References & History

Meadowsweet was one of the three most sacred herbs of the Druids, alongside vervain and water-mint. It was used historically in wedding garlands and strewing herbs, and was said to be Queen Elizabeth I’s favourite aromatic.

Mythology

In Celtic lore, meadowsweet was associated with joy and was one of the flowers used to create the mythical woman Blodeuwedd in the Mabinogion. It symbolises both beauty and bittersweet transformation.

Wild Pear

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Wild Pear
• Pyrus Communis

Origin

Wild Pear is native to Europe and parts of western Asia. It is rare in the British Isles and considered native in southern England, where it occurs sporadically in hedgerows, ancient woodland edges, and old pasture. It prefers sunny locations with fertile, well-drained, calcareous soils and is most often found in areas with long histories of traditional land use. Many wild pear trees in the UK may be naturalised or relics of early cultivation rather than truly wild types, as the species hybridises readily with domestic pears.

Summary

Wild Pear is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree, growing up to 15 to 20 metres in height. It has a narrow, upright form, spiny young branches, and small, hard, often inedible fruit. It is one of the wild ancestors of cultivated pears and exhibits many primitive traits, including thorniness, small leaves, and extremely gritty fruit. It flowers early in the season, producing clusters of white blossom before or just as the leaves emerge.

Though no longer common, wild pear plays an ecological role in hedgerows and woodland edges and has historical significance in the development of pear cultivation in Europe.

Where to find Wild Pears

Wild pear is scattered and uncommon in Britain, mostly found in southern and eastern England, particularly in old hedgerows, woodland margins, and ancient field boundaries. It is more common across central and southern Europe. It prefers sunny spots with alkaline or neutral soil, often on chalk or limestone. In other areas, wild-looking trees may be naturalised or feral domestic pears.

Look for its upright shape and clusters of white flowers in early spring, followed by small, round pears in late summer and early autumn.

How to Identify

Wild pear grows as a tall, upright tree with a narrow crown and slender branches. Young twigs may bear small, sharp thorns, a feature often lost in cultivated varieties.

Leaves are alternate, oval to rounded, with finely toothed margins, usually 3–7 cm long. They are dark green and glossy above, paler below, and turn yellow in autumn. Leaf stalks are long and slender.

Flowers are white, five-petalled, and bloom in small clusters (corymbs) in early to mid-April, before the tree is fully in leaf. Each flower is 2–3 cm across and may have a slight scent.

Fruits are small, hard pears, typically 2–4 cm in diameter, ripening in late summer or early autumn. They are greenish-yellow or brown, often with russeting or speckling, and are extremely gritty and astringent when raw.

Bark is greyish-brown, becoming rough and scaly with age. Older trees may develop deep fissures.

Sensory Information

Flowers are lightly scented and attract early pollinators. The leaves have a faint, bitter-green aroma when crushed. Twigs may emit a woody, slightly sharp scent when broken.

The fruit is extremely hard and tannic when raw — bitter, dry, and gritty due to stone cells in the flesh. When bletted (left to overripen and soften), the flavour sweetens somewhat, becoming mildly pear-like with a hint of spice, but still retains a coarse texture.

The wood is dense, smooth, and has a fine grain, with a light reddish or brownish hue when freshly cut.

How to Use

The fruit of the wild pear is rarely eaten raw due to its intense astringency and toughness, but it can be used when cooked or bletted. Historically, wild pears were used in perry (pear cider), especially when blended with sweeter or softer varieties. The high tannin content adds depth and sharpness to fermented beverages.

Bletted fruit can be stewed with sugar or added to jams, chutneys, and preserves, though the gritty texture usually limits its appeal. In some traditional preparations, the fruit was sliced, dried, and ground into flour or added to dried fruit cakes in famine or hardship periods.

Wild pear is sometimes used in modern foraging as a flavouring base for vinegars, syrups, or spiced jellies, often mixed with apples, rowan, or hawthorn to balance tannins.

Fruits should be gathered in late summer to early autumn and left to soften before use. The seeds, like other members of the rose family, contain cyanogenic compounds and should not be consumed in large quantities.

Non food and drink uses

The wood of wild pear is highly valued in fine woodworking. It is dense, hard, and polishes to a smooth finish, making it ideal for carving, turnery, musical instruments, rulers, drawing tools, and engraved printing blocks. When stained black, it was once used as a substitute for ebony.

The tree is occasionally planted for ornamental or ecological purposes. Its early blossom supports spring pollinators, and the fruit provides food for birds and small mammals.

As a close relative of cultivated pear, wild pear is sometimes used in rootstock breeding and grafting trials.

Cultural References & History

Wild pear has a long association with early fruit cultivation. It was one of the ancestors of modern European pears, and archaeological evidence shows pear remains in Neolithic and Iron Age settlements. It was cultivated by the Romans and further developed in medieval monasteries and estates.

In traditional English and continental European folklore, the pear tree was associated with love, fertility, and abundance. Pear blossom was sometimes used in wedding garlands or hung in homes for protection.

In some parts of Europe, wild pears were used in rustic charms or hung in barns to protect livestock. The pear, both wild and cultivated, symbolised femininity, sensuality, and fruitfulness in folk art and storytelling.

Mythology

The pear tree does not feature as prominently in myth as rowan or hawthorn, but in several traditions, it held symbolic meaning tied to longevity, fertility, and domestic harmony. In Greek mythology, the pear was sacred to Hera, goddess of marriage and women.

In Christian symbolism, the pear sometimes stood for maternal love and care, with its soft shape and sweet fruit representing nourishment and comfort. The wild pear, however, was viewed more ambiguously - untamed, harsh, and stubborn, but beautiful in its flowering and resilient in poor soils.

Its status as a tree of hedgerows and woodland edges, producing fruit both hard and generous, gave it a dual identity: part cultivated, part wild - a liminal tree bridging human and natural worlds.

Crab Apple

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Crab Apple
• Wild Apple
• Scrab
• Scrogg
• Malus Sylvestris

Origin

Crab Apple is native to Europe and western Asia and is considered Britain’s only truly native wild apple species. It is found throughout the British Isles, particularly in hedgerows, woodland edges, old pastureland, and roadsides. It prefers moist, well-drained soils and full sun but tolerates partial shade. Often growing as a small tree or large shrub, crab apple has been part of rural landscapes for thousands of years and is thought to be one of the ancestors of cultivated apple varieties (Malus domestica).

Summary

Crab Apple is a small deciduous tree, typically growing 4 to 10 metres tall, with a broad, rounded crown and a gnarled, irregular form. It is known for its showy pink-tinged blossom in Spring and small, hard green or yellow fruits with reddish or mottled skins that ripen in Autumn. The fruit is tart and often inedible raw but valuable for cooking, preserving, and adding pectin to jams and jellies.

Crab apple plays an important ecological role, providing nectar for pollinators, fruit for birds and mammals, and acting as a genetic bridge between wild and cultivated apples. Its wood and flowers have historical and cultural importance in folklore and traditional craft.

Where to find Crab Apples

Crab apple is found in hedgerows, woodland clearings, field edges, old meadows, and roadsides. It often grows singly or in small groups and prefers neutral to slightly acidic soils. It is commonly seen in lowland Britain, especially in southern and central England, and less frequently in upland areas or exposed sites.

Look for it in late Spring when it bursts into blossom, and again in Autumn when the small, apple-like fruits turn yellow, green, or red and hang on bare branches after the leaves fall.

How to Identify

Crab apple is a small, spreading tree with a rounded canopy and dense branching. The bark is grey-brown and becomes rough and fissured with age. Young twigs are downy and often reddish.

Leaves are oval with finely toothed edges, 4–6 cm long, and alternate along the stems. They are a rich green above and paler underneath, turning yellow in Autumn.

Flowers appear in April or May, depending on climate. They are 2–4 cm across with five white petals tinged with pink, clustered in small groups. The blossoms are fragrant and attract bees and insects.

Fruits are small apples, 2–4 cm wide, yellow-green to red, often mottled, and usually hard and sour when raw. They ripen from September through November and can persist into early Winter.

The tree may sucker from the base or grow multi-stemmed in some conditions, especially if cut or browsed.

Sensory Information

Crab apple flowers have a strong, sweet scent - a rich, floral perfume that signals the arrival of Spring. The leaves have a mild, green, apple-like scent when crushed. The bark has a subtle, woody aroma.

The fruits are hard and sour when raw, with a puckering astringency. When cooked, their flavour mellows, becoming tart and apple-like, often compared to a sharp Bramley. The pectin-rich flesh breaks down well into jellies or pastes. Overripe fruits soften slightly but remain tart.

The wood is dense and smooth, with a mild sweet aroma when freshly cut. It burns slowly and evenly, making it valuable firewood.

How to Use

Crab apples are not usually eaten raw due to their sharp, sour taste, but they are highly valued in cooking. They are rich in pectin and ideal for making jelly, jam, fruit butters, and chutneys. Crab apple jelly is a traditional accompaniment to game and cheese.

The fruit can also be used to make cider, wine, vinegar, or added to other fruit preserves to improve setting. Crab apples pair well with rose hips, rowan berries, elderberries, and cultivated apples in mixed foraged preserves.

To prepare, wash and quarter the fruit. There is no need to peel or core for jelly making, but the seeds should be removed for other uses. Cooking softens the flesh and releases flavour and pectin.

The blossoms are edible and can be used as garnish or infused into syrups or floral vinegars, though sparingly to avoid overharvesting from pollinators.

Non food and drink uses

Crab apple is important ecologically, supporting a wide range of insects and providing fruit for birds, including blackbirds, thrushes, and fieldfares, and mammals such as badgers and foxes. The blossoms are an early nectar source for bees.

The wood is hard, fine-grained, and was historically used for carving, tool handles, cogwheels, and mallet heads. It is prized for its durability and slow, even burn, making it excellent firewood and smoking wood for meats.

Crab apple trees are also used as rootstock for grafting cultivated apples and as pollinators in orchards, helping to increase yield through cross-pollination.

Cultural References & History

Crab apple has long featured in folklore, poetry, and rural tradition. In Celtic lore, it was one of the sacred trees of the ogham alphabet (Quert) and associated with love, fertility, and healing. Its sour fruit was said to symbolise the bittersweet nature of life and love.

In medieval Britain, crab apple was considered a protective tree, often planted near cottages or boundary lines. Wassailing ceremonies in cider-producing regions sometimes included crab apple trees, with offerings of cider poured at the roots to bless the harvest.

The tree appears in Shakespeare and other literature as a symbol of wildness, rustic charm, or old age. Its rough, gnarled shape and sour fruit were both admired and mocked in folk verse and song.

Mythology

In ancient traditions, crab apple was seen as a magical tree. In Celtic mythology, it was associated with the otherworld, particularly as a threshold tree that marked sacred or liminal spaces. It was said to guard the entrance to the faerie realm or to bloom in enchanted places out of season.

Crab apples were used in love divinations - a girl might peel a crab apple in one strip and throw it over her shoulder, the shape it formed on landing revealing the initial of her future lover. Wassail rituals around apple trees often included crab apple, seen as a “keeper” of orchard spirits.

The tree's association with fertility, protection, and transformation made it a favourite in charm lore. It represents endurance, ancient wisdom, and nature’s balance of sweetness and bitterness.

Rosebay

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Rosebay
• Rosebay Willowherb
• Fireweed
• Bombweed
• Chamerion Angustifolium (formerly Epilobium angustifolium)

Origin

Rosebay Willowherb is native to Europe and parts of Asia, and is widespread throughout the British Isles. It has also naturalised extensively in North America and elsewhere, where it is often called fireweed. It thrives in disturbed ground, particularly in areas recovering from fire, clearance, or human activity. It is a pioneer species, quickly colonising waste ground, railway embankments, forest clearings, verges, and urban edges. The plant is commonly seen growing in tall stands in summer, often forming striking pink-purple drifts.

Summary

Rosebay Willowherb is a tall, fast-growing, perennial herbaceous plant in the evening primrose family (Onagraceae). It typically grows between 1 and 2 metres tall and is known for its tall spires of bright pink-purple flowers and narrow, willow-like leaves. It spreads via both seeds and creeping underground rhizomes, allowing it to form dense colonies.

Flowering from June to September, it is highly attractive to pollinators such as bees and butterflies. The fluffy, white seed heads appear in late summer and are dispersed by wind. Once associated with ruin and recovery, the plant earned the name “bombweed” after thriving on blitzed sites during and after World War II.

Where to find Rosebay

Rosebay is commonly found in open, disturbed, or recently cleared land: roadside verges, railway banks, woodland clearings, gravelly ground, post-industrial sites, and gardens. It thrives in full sun and prefers moist, light soils but tolerates a wide range of conditions.

In urban and rural areas alike, it can quickly colonise sites where vegetation has been cleared or burned, forming eye-catching, colourful stands in late summer.

How to Identify

Rosebay grows upright with a central flowering stem, often reaching 1.5 to 2 metres in height. Stems are reddish, smooth or slightly hairy, and unbranched except near the top.

Leaves are narrow, lanceolate (willow-like), 5–15 cm long, with a smooth margin and distinctive spiral arrangement around the stem. A key ID feature is the leaf veins, which run almost parallel to the edge (unlike the netted veins of most plants).

Flowers are bright pink to magenta, each with four notched petals and a prominent white stigma. They are arranged in long, tapering spikes (racemes) that bloom from bottom to top from June to September.

After flowering, long, narrow seed pods form, which split open to release masses of silky white seeds carried on the wind.

Sensory Information

The flowers have a faint, sweet scent and are often alive with bees and butterflies in midsummer. The leaves are soft, narrow, and slightly leathery to the touch. The seed fluff is silky and clings easily to skin or clothing.

The young shoots, when snapped, are moist and crisp, similar in texture to asparagus. The roots smell earthy and slightly sweet when dug, especially in spring or autumn.

The mature stems are fibrous and tough. The plant often has a faintly resinous or green, sappy aroma when broken.

How to Use

Rosebay has a long history of use as a wild food, especially in its early growth stages.

Young shoots (10–15 cm tall) can be harvested in spring and used like asparagus. They are best steamed or lightly boiled and served with butter or lemon. The flavour is mild and green, with a slight bitterness if allowed to grow too large.

Young leaves can be eaten raw in salads or cooked like spinach. Older leaves become fibrous and are better dried for herbal tea. The flavour is mild, slightly tannic, and reminiscent of green tea. In Russia, fermented rosebay leaves were historically used to make a tea known as “Ivan Chai.”

Flowers can be used to decorate salads, syrups, jellies, or desserts. They have a slightly sweet, floral flavour and vivid colour.

Pith from young stems can be scraped and eaten raw or added to soups and stews. It has a mildly sweet flavour and was used as emergency food.

Roots are technically edible but require long cooking and are generally considered more survival food due to their fibrous nature. Their use is minimal compared to other parts of the plant.

Care should be taken when harvesting from roadsides or polluted ground, where the plant readily establishes.

Non food and drink uses

The downy seed fluff was historically used as tinder, stuffing, and insulation. It was sometimes blended with cotton or used to fill pillows and jackets. The long stems have been used for rudimentary weaving or cordage experiments.

Rosebay is valued ecologically for stabilising soil and supporting pollinators. It is an early coloniser in rewilding and conservation settings. The plant supports bees, butterflies, and hoverflies and is used in pollinator-friendly planting.

In herbal medicine, Rosebay has been used for its astringent and anti-inflammatory properties, particularly in the treatment of digestive and urinary conditions, though this is less common today.

Cultural References & History

Rosebay Willowherb has become symbolic of regeneration and resilience. Its common name “fireweed” reflects its ability to colonise burnt ground quickly. After the London Blitz during World War II, the plant famously covered bomb sites and ruined buildings, becoming a symbol of nature’s return and quiet defiance.

It was also known as “bombweed” during the 20th century and featured in newspaper stories and poems about the regrowth of hope from destruction.

Historically, rosebay was used in Russian and Eastern European folk medicine and cuisine. In the British Isles, its use was more limited, though it was recognised as a useful emergency and forage plant.

Today, Rosebay is increasingly appreciated for its ecological value, striking appearance, and foraging potential.

Mythology

Rosebay has limited direct mythological associations, but in folk belief, its sudden appearance in areas of devastation gave it a reputation as a healer of the land. It was sometimes seen as a symbol of cycles - destruction followed by renewal - and as a plant of the threshold, bridging the space between ruin and rebirth.

In some parts of northern and eastern Europe, Rosebay was associated with fire spirits or forest guardians, due to its tendency to appear where fire had passed. The pink flowers rising from scorched earth were seen as a quiet kind of miracle - a reassurance that life would return.

Its rising habit, bright colour, and mass flowering make it a striking presence - part beauty, part pioneer, part survivor.

Hawthorn

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Hawthorn
• May Tree
• Quickthorn
• Thornnapple
• Whitethorn
• Crataegus Monogyna

Origin

Hawthorn is native to Europe, northwest Africa, and western Asia. It is widespread across the British Isles and has naturalised in other temperate regions around the world. It thrives in hedgerows, woodland edges, scrub, and grassland. Hawthorn is tolerant of a wide range of soils, though it prefers well-drained, chalky or loamy ground. As one of the most important hedgerow species in Britain, it has been cultivated and used for centuries to mark boundaries and contain livestock.

Summary

Hawthorn is a small, deciduous tree or large shrub, typically growing up to 10 metres tall. It is known for its gnarled, thorny branches, deeply lobed leaves, fragrant white flowers in Spring, and clusters of red berries (haws) in autumn. The tree is long-lived and forms dense, impenetrable thickets when unmanaged.

It flowers in late April to June, with a strong scent that has divided opinions historically — sometimes described as sweet and almond-like, sometimes as unpleasant. The red haws ripen from September to November and provide important winter food for birds. Hawthorn is closely tied to May Day celebrations and has deep associations with protection, love, and the boundary between the mundane and the magical.

Where to find Hawthorn

Hawthorn is extremely common across the UK and Ireland in hedgerows, field boundaries, woodland margins, scrubland, churchyards, roadsides, and parklands. It is tolerant of pruning and harsh conditions and is often planted as a living fence. In ancient hedges, it may dominate alongside blackthorn, hazel, and bramble.

Look for its white blossoms in late Spring, often covering entire hedgerows, and again in autumn when its small, scarlet-red fruits are abundant.

How to Identify

Hawthorn is a dense, thorny tree with grey-brown bark that becomes cracked and fissured with age. Young branches bear numerous sharp thorns up to 2.5 cm long.

Leaves are small, alternate, and deeply lobed with 3 to 7 irregular, rounded lobes. They emerge in early Spring, bright green and often tinged with red.

Flowers bloom in clusters, each with five white petals and a central cluster of yellow stamens. Flowers appear from late April to early June and often have a strong, musky fragrance.

Fruits are small red berries, about 1 cm in diameter, known as haws. Each haw contains a single stone. They ripen in late summer and persist into winter.

Hawthorn may be confused with Midland Hawthorn (Crataegus laevigata), but the latter usually has two seeds per fruit and less deeply lobed leaves.

Sensory Information

The flowers have a strong scent, often described as almond-like, musky, or even slightly unpleasant - due to the presence of trimethylamine, a compound also found in decaying flesh. Despite this, they are beloved by pollinators.

The leaves have a mild, green aroma when crushed. The thorns are sharp and woody. The haws are slightly sweet, mealy, and astringent when eaten raw, with a texture like soft apple skin and pulp.

When cooked, the fruit’s flavour deepens, developing gentle apple or date-like notes. The wood is tough and dense, with a pale to reddish heartwood and a mild woody scent.

How to Use

Hawthorn haws are edible and can be used to make jellies, fruit leathers, sauces, ketchup, syrup, vinegar, and wine. While not highly flavourful raw, they are rich in pectin and vitamin C, making them useful for preserving and setting. They pair well with crab apples and rose hips in wild hedgerow recipes.

To prepare, remove the stalks and seeds before cooking or straining. They are best harvested when fully ripe but still firm - usually in late September through November.

Young Spring leaves and flower buds, known as "bread and cheese" in country lore, were traditionally eaten raw in small amounts. They have a mild, nutty taste and were a common forager’s snack.

Hawthorn should be foraged with care and respect, as it is a vital food source for birds and supports a rich ecological web.

Non food and drink uses

Hawthorn is a cornerstone of traditional hedgelaying and countryside management. Its dense growth, rapid regeneration, and thorny branches make it ideal for living fences and wildlife corridors. It is one of the most common native hedge plants in Britain.

The wood is very hard and was historically used for tool handles, mallets, and walking sticks. It burns hot and was once favoured for bread ovens and hearths.

In herbal medicine, hawthorn has been used for centuries to support heart health and circulation. Tinctures and teas made from the leaves, flowers, and berries are still used in modern herbalism, though always under guidance.

Cultural References & History

Hawthorn has deep roots in British, Irish, and European folklore. It was long associated with May Day and fertility rites, its flowering heralding the start of summer. Maypoles were often decorated with hawthorn branches, and young couples would walk through blooming hawthorn groves during Beltane festivals.

Known as the “fairy tree” in Irish folklore, lone hawthorns growing on hills or near wells were considered sacred and untouchable. Cutting them was believed to bring misfortune, illness, or death, as they were said to mark fairy paths or ancient burial sites.

The plant was believed to offer protection against evil spirits, lightning, and illness. Sprigs were hung over doors, windows, and cattle sheds for protection, especially during the May festival.

Despite its protective reputation, hawthorn was also seen as dangerous to bring indoors, particularly when in flower, due to its association with death and the otherworld.

Mythology

In Celtic lore, hawthorn is one of the sacred triad of trees - oak, ash, and thorn - often appearing at magical thresholds or fairy-haunted glens. It was thought to be a portal between worlds, blooming at Beltane when the veil between realms was thinnest.

The white flowers and red fruits symbolised both life and death, beauty and danger, making hawthorn a liminal tree, rooted in both this world and the next. It featured in many folk charms, especially for love, fertility, and protection.

In Christian tradition, hawthorn was said to have formed Christ’s crown of thorns, further linking it to suffering and redemption. The Glastonbury Thorn, a famous hawthorn in Somerset, is linked to the legend of Joseph of Arimathea and blooms twice a year - at Easter and Christmas.

Hawthorn’s tangled presence in hedgerows, its defensive thorns, and its fleeting but beautiful blossom make it a tree of contradictions - beloved, feared, and never ignored.

Rowan

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Rowan
• Mountain Ash
• Quickbeam
• Witchwood
• Sorbus Acuparia

Origin

Rowan is native to most of Europe, western Asia, and parts of North Africa. It is widespread across the British Isles, thriving in upland areas, rocky slopes, woodland edges, and hedgerows. Rowan is tolerant of poor, acidic soils and cold climates, often growing in exposed, elevated locations where few other trees survive. It is particularly associated with Celtic countries such as Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, where it plays a prominent role in folklore and tradition.

Summary

Rowan is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree, growing up to 15 metres tall. It is well known for its elegant, pinnate leaves, clusters of creamy white flowers in late spring, and bright red berries in late Summer and Autumn. The berries are a valuable food source for birds and were traditionally used by humans in jellies and wines.

Rowan is an important wildlife tree and one of the most culturally significant native trees in Britain and Ireland. Long associated with protection, magic, and spiritual guardianship, it is often found near dwellings, churches, and on ancient boundary lines.

Where to find Rowan

Rowan grows in upland woods, heathlands, rocky hillsides, hedgerows, moorland edges, and parks. It is especially common in mountainous areas of Scotland, northern England, Wales, and Ireland. It prefers light, acidic, well-drained soils and can tolerate poor, stony ground. Often planted ornamentally in towns and gardens, it is also found naturally in oak, birch, or pine woodlands.

Look for its clusters of white flowers in late spring or bright red berries from August to October. Its leaves and fruit distinguish it easily from true ashes, despite the similar name.

How to Identify

Rowan has smooth grey bark and a graceful, upright form. Leaves are pinnate, made up of 5 to 8 pairs of narrow, toothed leaflets plus a terminal leaflet, giving a feather-like appearance. Leaflets are dark green above and paler below, turning yellow or red in autumn.

Flowers bloom from May to June in dense, flat-topped clusters (corymbs). Each flower is creamy white with five rounded petals and a mild scent.

Fruits appear in late summer, ripening to bright red or orange-red by late August. The berries are round, about 6–10 mm in diameter, and grow in drooping bunches. They persist into autumn and are popular with birds, particularly thrushes and blackbirds.

The tree’s twigs are smooth and reddish-brown with distinctive pale lenticels. Buds are dark, pointed, and covered in downy hairs.

Sensory Information

Rowan flowers have a faint, sweetly sour scent that can become musty in hot weather. The leaves have a slight almond or grassy scent when crushed. The berries are firm and bitter when raw, becoming softer as they ripen. The juice is tangy and sharp, with a sour, astringent taste.

The tree itself has a light, airy form and provides gentle shade. In autumn, the vibrant foliage and berries are visually striking and attract both people and wildlife.

How to Use

Rowan berries are edible when cooked and can be used to make jelly, wine, vinegar, syrup, and liqueurs. Raw berries are too bitter and astringent to eat and may cause stomach upset if consumed in quantity. Cooking breaks down the sorbic acid and mellows the flavour.

Rowan jelly is traditionally served with game, lamb, or venison. It has a sharp, fruity taste with a subtle bitterness, often compared to cranberry or redcurrant. The berries can also be fermented into wine or infused into spirits.

Berries are best harvested in early autumn, before they become overripe or are eaten by birds. Choose fully red, soft but firm fruits, and remove the small seeds when possible, as they contain mild toxins similar to those found in apple seeds.

The flowers are not commonly used in food but have been experimented with in infusions or syrups. The bark and leaves are not edible and should not be consumed.

Non food and drink uses

Rowan is a valuable tree for wildlife, supporting pollinators in spring and birds in autumn and winter. The berries are especially important for thrushes, waxwings, and other migratory birds. The foliage provides cover for small mammals and nesting sites for birds.

Rowan wood is pale, strong, and fine-grained. It was traditionally used for tool handles, walking sticks, spindles, and carving. Though not widely used commercially today, it remains a favourite among woodworkers for ornamental items.

The tree is often planted in rewilding projects, upland afforestation schemes, and conservation hedgerows. It plays a key role in upland ecology and succession, especially in birch and pine-dominated habitats.

Cultural References & History

Rowan is one of the most significant trees in Celtic and British folklore. Known as the “Tree of Life” or “Witchwood,” it was believed to protect against evil, witchcraft, and enchantment. Twigs were carried as charms, and trees were planted near homes, gates, and churches to guard against malevolent forces.

In Scottish Gaelic, it is known as "caorann," and red rowan berries were thought to contain protective powers due to their colour — red being associated with life and vitality. Rowan branches were used to make protective crosses, wands, or staves, often tied with red thread.

Rowan was also associated with inspiration, insight, and divination. It was planted at crossroads and thresholds, believed to guard the boundary between worlds. In some traditions, rowan berries were placed in milk or hung above livestock to prevent illness.

Rowan features in poetry, songs, and local legends across Britain and Ireland. It is one of the most symbolically rich native trees, tied to themes of guardianship, renewal, and connection to the spirit world.

Mythology

In Norse mythology, the first woman was said to have been created from a rowan tree, just as the first man was made from ash. The tree was sacred to Thor, who was once saved from a river by grasping a rowan branch.

In Celtic belief, rowan was the tree of the goddess Brigid and often associated with female power, healing, and inspiration. It was said to bloom near fairy mounds or places of spiritual energy.

In Irish myth, rowan berries were sometimes described as food of the otherworld, granting vision, poetry, or protection to those who consumed them. The berries were believed to ward off misfortune and to glow with inner light in magical tales.

Rowan’s deep spiritual associations, combined with its hardy, mountain-loving nature, make it one of the most revered trees in the European folkloric landscape - a protector at the edge of the wild.

Dog Rose

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Dog Rose
• Wild Rose
• Briar Rose
• Rosa Canina

Origin

Dog Rose is native to Europe, northwest Africa, and western Asia. It is widespread across the British Isles and naturalised in other temperate regions around the world. It thrives in hedgerows, woodland margins, scrubland, and embankments, particularly on well-drained, chalky or clay soils. A classic feature of traditional countryside hedges, Dog Rose is a vigorous, scrambling shrub often seen climbing through hawthorn, blackthorn, or bramble.

Summary

Dog Rose is a fast-growing, deciduous climbing shrub with arching, thorny stems and attractive pink or white flowers that bloom from late Spring into early Summer. It produces bright red, oval-shaped fruits known as rose hips in Autumn. These hips are high in vitamin C and have long been used in preserves and herbal remedies.

The plant can grow several metres high, using surrounding vegetation for support. It plays an important role in supporting wildlife and is a characteristic feature of mixed hedgerows and woodland edges throughout lowland Britain.

Where to find Dog Rose

Dog Rose is commonly found in hedgerows, woodland borders, roadsides, thickets, scrub, and along railway lines. It prefers sunny, sheltered locations and well-drained soils but is highly adaptable and tolerant of a range of conditions. It is one of the most familiar wild roses in Britain and is often planted in conservation hedges and field margins.

Look for it in early summer when the delicate flowers appear, and again in Autumn when the vivid red hips are visible among bare stems or fading leaves.

How to Identify

Dog Rose is a scrambling shrub with long, arching stems armed with backward-curving thorns. It can climb to heights of 3 metres or more when supported by other vegetation. The stems are green or reddish, becoming woody and brown with age.

Leaves are pinnate, with five to seven oval leaflets that are finely toothed and slightly hairy. Leaflets are arranged alternately on the stems and turn yellow in Autumn.

Flowers are typically 4 to 6 cm across, with five petals ranging in colour from pale pink to almost white. Each flower has a central cluster of yellow stamens and is lightly fragrant. Flowers appear from May to July and are pollinated by bees, hoverflies, and other insects.

Fruits are oval red hips, usually 1.5 to 2.5 cm long, ripening from September to November. The hips remain on the plant through Winter and are an important food source for birds.

Sensory Information

The flowers have a delicate, sweet fragrance, especially in warm weather. The petals are soft and slightly translucent, fading to white as they age. The leaves have a mild, green scent when crushed, and the stems are rough and thorny to the touch.

The ripe hips are firm and waxy, with a slightly sour, fruity smell. Inside, they contain many small seeds surrounded by fine, irritant hairs that must be removed before culinary use. The pulp is sticky, bright orange-red, and tart when tasted raw.

How to Use

The bright red hips are the main edible part of the Dog Rose. They are best harvested after the first frost, which softens the fruit and reduces bitterness. Hips can be used to make syrup, jelly, wine, vinegar, and herbal teas.

Rose hip syrup was once widely used as a vitamin C supplement during wartime Britain when citrus fruits were scarce. To make syrup or jelly, the hips must be cooked and strained carefully to remove the fine hairs inside, which can irritate the mouth and digestive tract.

The flavour of rose hips is tart and fruity, with a hint of floral aroma. They can be used fresh or dried and ground for later use in herbal blends or infusions.

Rose petals are also edible in small quantities and can be used to decorate salads, desserts, or infused into syrups or vinegars. Only use petals that are free from pesticide and pollution exposure.

The seeds are not edible and should be discarded. Always prepare hips carefully and strain well if making tea or syrup.

Non food and drink uses

Dog Rose is important for wildlife, providing nectar for insects, hips for birds and mammals, and dense cover for nesting. Birds such as thrushes, blackbirds, and fieldfares feed on the hips through winter.

The wood is dense and was historically used for tool handles and small turnings. The thorns and dense scrambling habit make it useful in stock-proof hedging.

In herbal medicine, rose hips have been used as a source of antioxidants, for boosting immunity, and for relieving joint inflammation. Infusions of petals or leaves were occasionally used as a gentle astringent or skin rinse.

Cultural References & History

Dog Rose is the national flower of England and has long been associated with country hedgerows and folk tradition. In heraldry and symbolism, the rose stands for beauty, purity, love, and war. The famous Tudor rose combined the red rose of Lancaster with the white rose of York — though not specifically the Dog Rose, the symbolism draws on the wild rose’s long history in Britain.

In medieval times, rose petals and hips were used in charms, potions, and remedies. The plant was cultivated in cottage gardens for its medicinal value and visual appeal. During World War II, schools and community groups were organised to collect rose hips for syrup production as part of a national vitamin supplement program.

The name "Dog Rose" is thought to derive from the Latin “canina,” perhaps because it was used to treat bites from mad dogs in ancient times.

Mythology

In folklore, wild roses were considered protective and sacred. A garland of rose stems was sometimes hung in barns or above doorways to ward off evil. In some traditions, roses were planted on graves to protect the dead or to mark the presence of spirits.

The rose’s ability to flower in wild, untamed places made it a symbol of both natural beauty and resilience. Its thorny stems represented defence and endurance, while its delicate blossoms symbolised fleeting youth and love.

The hips, ripening just as the year turns colder, were seen as a gift of sustenance and healing — a final offering of the wild before winter's stillness set in.

Wild Strawberry

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Wild Strawberry
• Woodland Strawberry
• European Strawberry
• Fragaria Vesca

Origin

Wild Strawberry is native to Europe, western and central Asia, and parts of North Africa. It is widespread across the British Isles and is also found in North America, where it is sometimes confused with local native strawberry species. It thrives in sunny to lightly shaded habitats with moist, well-drained soils, commonly found in woodland clearings, grassy banks, hedgerows, meadows, and along paths. It prefers undisturbed ground and is a reliable indicator of long-established, semi-natural habitats.

Summary

Wild Strawberry is a low-growing, herbaceous perennial forming spreading mats through slender runners (stolons). It produces small, trifoliate leaves and white flowers from late spring to early summer, followed by tiny, sweet red fruits that ripen from June through August. The plant is highly attractive to pollinators and small mammals and is one of the most beloved wild edibles due to its intense flavour and delicate texture.

Though smaller than cultivated strawberries, wild strawberries are aromatic and complex in taste, often regarded as superior in flavour. The plant has been eaten by humans since prehistoric times and is the ancestor of many cultivated varieties.

Where to find Wild Strawberries

Wild Strawberry can be found in open woodland, grassy slopes, hedge banks, woodland edges, old pastures, clearings, railway embankments, and scrubby grassland. It prefers neutral to slightly acidic soils and often grows in places with some shelter from wind. In the UK, it is common in southern England and parts of Wales, less so in northern or upland areas but still present.

Look for it in early summer when white flowers bloom just above the leaves, and again in midsummer when red fruits appear close to the ground.

How to Identify

Wild Strawberry is a small, spreading plant, typically no more than 10–15 cm tall, forming mats of leafy growth. Leaves are divided into three oval leaflets with toothed edges and prominent surface veining. The leaflets are hairy on both sides and have a bright green, slightly rough texture.

Flowers are small, white, with five petals and a yellow centre, blooming from May to July. Each flower is held above the leaves on a thin stalk and resembles a small rose, a trait of the Rosaceae family.

The fruit is a small red berry, technically an aggregate fruit with seeds (achenes) on the outer surface. It is conical or roundish in shape, usually no more than 1–1.5 cm across. The fruit is aromatic and sweet when fully ripe but tends to spoil quickly after picking.

The plant spreads by above-ground runners which root at nodes to form new plants. This allows wild strawberry to colonise patches of open ground quickly under suitable conditions.

Sensory Information

The flowers have a faint, sweet scent and are popular with bees and hoverflies. The leaves have a mild green aroma and slightly coarse texture. When crushed, they emit a subtle herbal scent.

The ripe fruit is fragrant, soft, and incredibly sweet with a complex, perfumed flavour — often described as more intense and floral than cultivated strawberries. The juice is minimal, but the aroma is powerful. Unripe berries are firm, greenish-white, and sour.

The plant itself has a gentle, springy feel underfoot and adds to the ground-layer structure of species-rich grassland or woodland edge habitats.

How to Use

The fruits are edible and highly prized for their intense flavour. They can be eaten fresh, straight from the plant, or gathered in small quantities for use in wild desserts and seasonal dishes. Due to their small size and perishability, wild strawberries are rarely used in bulk preparations but are perfect for garnishes, salads, and subtle flavour infusions.

They can be macerated with sugar, mixed into cream, added to yogurt, used in wild fruit tarts, or gently warmed into coulis or syrups. Their concentrated flavour also makes them suitable for infusing into vinegars, liqueurs, or wild wines.

Because of their delicacy, fruits should be picked on dry days and eaten soon after harvest. They do not store or travel well.

In traditional practices, leaves were sometimes dried and used as a mild herbal tea, particularly for digestive health or skin complaints, though this use is more medicinal than culinary.

Non food and drink uses

Wild Strawberry provides food and habitat for insects, including bees and butterflies, and birds and small mammals that forage for the fruits. It is also used ornamentally as a groundcover plant in gardens, especially in permaculture or forest garden settings, where its low growth and spreading habit help control weeds and maintain moisture.

The plant has minor historical use in traditional herbalism, especially its leaves and roots as astringents and tonics. The fruit juice was sometimes used for cosmetic purposes, such as lightening freckles or cleansing the skin.

Cultural References & History

Wild Strawberry has been appreciated since ancient times. It was gathered by early European peoples and appears in texts dating back to Roman times. In the Middle Ages, it was associated with purity, humility, and modesty due to its growth close to the ground and delicate flowers.

In Christian symbolism, wild strawberry leaves were sometimes used in religious artwork to represent the Trinity, and the fruit was a symbol of the Virgin Mary. In medieval herbalism, strawberries were considered beneficial but were also viewed with caution due to their potential to spoil easily.

The plant was cultivated in European monastery gardens, and its hybridisation eventually led to the development of modern garden strawberries (Fragaria × ananassa), a cross between F. vesca and larger-fruited New World species.

Mythology

Though not as steeped in dramatic myth as elder or blackthorn, wild strawberry holds symbolic significance. In various European traditions, it represented love, sweetness, and fleeting pleasure — a reminder that life’s most delightful offerings are often small, unexpected, and short-lived.

In folklore, strawberries were linked with faeries and woodland spirits. Some tales claimed that wild strawberries marked fairy paths or were planted by woodland beings to lure animals and humans deeper into the woods. In certain rural beliefs, wild strawberry patches were considered lucky and should not be overharvested, or the plant would cease producing fruit the following year.

Gean

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Gean
• Wild Cherry
• Prunus Avium

Origin

Gean, or wild cherry, is native to Europe, western Asia, and parts of North Africa. It is widespread throughout the British Isles, especially in England, Wales, and southern Scotland, though it is less common in northern and upland areas. It prefers well-drained, fertile soils in full sun or partial shade and is commonly found in mixed woodlands, hedgerows, forest edges, and old parklands. It is one of the parent species of cultivated sweet cherries and has been valued for both its timber and fruit since ancient times.

Summary

Gean is a fast-growing, deciduous tree known for its beautiful Spring blossoms, glossy red or black cherries, and rich, reddish-brown timber. It typically grows between 15 and 30 metres tall, forming a straight trunk and a broad, rounded crown. It flowers early in the year — from March to April in the UK — producing masses of white flowers before or alongside the emerging leaves. Fruits ripen in mid-Summer, turning from green to red to nearly black.

The tree is an important food source for birds and mammals, and the blossoms support early pollinators. In folklore, wild cherry is associated with beauty, transience, and emotional intensity.

Where to find Gean

Gean grows in ancient and secondary woodlands, hedgerows, forest edges, and occasionally as an ornamental in gardens and parklands. It favours lime-rich, well-drained soils and sunny or lightly shaded conditions. It is often found growing singly or in scattered groups and sometimes naturalised from cultivated forms.

Look for the tree in Spring when it is covered in bright white flowers, and again in early Summer when cherries begin to ripen and attract birds and wildlife.

How to Identify

Gean is a medium to tall tree with smooth, grey-brown bark when young, becoming shiny and marked with horizontal lenticels or peeling in thin rings. Older bark may become fissured.

Leaves are alternate, oval to oblong, with finely serrated margins and a pointed tip. They are a rich green in Summer, turning shades of gold and orange in Autumn. Each leaf has two small red glands on the stalk near the base, a feature common to cherries.

Flowers are pure white, five-petalled, and arranged in loose clusters or umbels. Each flower is about 2 to 3 cm across, with yellow stamens and a central pistil. They appear in March to April, often alongside the first unfolding leaves.

Fruits are small cherries, around 1–2 cm in diameter, ripening from green to red to almost black by June or July. Wild cherries are smaller and more acidic than cultivated varieties but are still edible.

The wood is reddish-brown with a fine grain and is prized for furniture, turning, and cabinetry.

Sensory Information

The blossoms have a faint sweet scent, noticeable when trees are in full bloom. The leaves have a slight almond-like scent when crushed, especially in young shoots. The bark can also emit a faint almond smell when scored, due to the presence of cyanogenic compounds.

The fruit is sweet to tart, depending on ripeness and variety. Fully ripe cherries are juicy and richly flavoured, though some wild trees produce bitter or astringent fruits. The flesh is dark red and stains fingers when crushed.

How to Use

The small cherries are edible and can be used in a range of culinary preparations, though they are often sour or tart compared to cultivated types. Wild cherries are best used cooked or preserved.

They can be made into jams, jellies, sauces, syrups, fruit leathers, or wild cherry brandy. When sweetened, the fruit makes excellent pie fillings or complements richer flavours like chocolate and almond. They can also be infused into vinegar or steeped in spirits.

Care must be taken to remove the stones, which contain cyanogenic compounds and should not be consumed. The stones are safe if discarded or strained from infusions.

Wild cherries are best harvested in early to mid-Summer when dark red or nearly black. They can be foraged carefully from lower branches or gathered after gentle shaking of fruiting limbs.

Non food and drink uses

Gean timber is one of the most valued native hardwoods in Europe. It is used in fine furniture, cabinetry, musical instruments, veneers, and decorative turnery. The wood is smooth, reddish, and polishes well. Its durability and even grain make it highly sought-after by craftsmen.

The bark and leaves contain trace amounts of cyanogenic glycosides and were once used cautiously in herbal preparations. In traditional medicine, cherry bark was used in cough remedies and infusions for chest complaints, though this use has declined.

The tree provides early nectar for pollinators and is an important food source for birds, such as thrushes and blackbirds, who feed on the fruit. Its spreading branches and leafy canopy offer cover and nesting habitat for wildlife.

Cultural References & History

Gean has long been admired for its blossom and fruit. In Celtic and Anglo-Saxon tradition, it was associated with fertility, love, and fleeting beauty. The brief period of flowering in early Spring made it a symbol of both vitality and impermanence.

In Scottish Gaelic, the tree is known as "fiodhag," and was sometimes planted near homes or along boundaries. Its wood was used in traditional craft and sometimes burned in ritual fires.

In medieval times, the cherry tree was celebrated in folk songs and love poetry. Its fruit was seen as both sensual and symbolic — sweet but with a hidden stone. Cherry festivals and seasonal gatherings still take place in parts of Europe where the fruit ripens in abundance.

Mythology

In folklore, the cherry tree has dual aspects: beauty and danger, sweetness and warning. The cherry’s early bloom made it a harbinger of Spring but also a reminder of the brevity of life. In some traditions, it was believed unlucky to bring cherry blossom indoors, as it could invite premature death or misfortune.

Wild cherry wood was believed to bring good fortune when burned or carried. In some rural customs, it was used in love divinations — a cherry stone placed under a pillow could induce dreams of a future lover.

The tree’s crimson juice and lush foliage linked it to fertility, love, and passion, but also to transformation and fate. In some European myths, cherry trees were believed to house spirits of the dead or to mark sites of ancient burial.

Raspberry

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Raspberry
• Red Raspberry
• European Raspberry
• Rubus Ideaus

Origin

The raspberry is native to Europe and northern Asia, including the British Isles. It grows naturally in forest clearings, along woodland edges, hedgerows, and riverbanks. Raspberry thrives in cool, temperate climates with moist, well-drained soils and partial shade, though it will also grow in full sun. It is a pioneer species, quickly establishing itself in disturbed or logged woodland. The plant has been cultivated since antiquity and now includes both wild and cultivated varieties, with many hybrids and selections developed for fruit production.

Summary

Raspberry is a deciduous, suckering shrub in the rose family (Rosaceae), producing sweet, aromatic red fruits in early to mid-summer. It grows to about 1.5 to 2 metres in height, spreading through underground runners that send up new canes. Wild raspberries tend to be smaller and more delicate than cultivated forms, but are often more intensely flavoured.

The canes are biennial - producing leafy growth in the first year, and flowering and fruiting in the second, before dying back. Flowers appear from May to July, followed by red aggregate fruits in June to August. Raspberry supports a variety of pollinators and fruit-eating wildlife and is one of the most iconic wild summer berries.

Where to find Raspberry

Wild raspberries grow in woodland margins, glades, regenerating clearings, thickets, damp scrub, and along riverbanks and bridleways. They prefer moist, slightly acidic soils and light shade, especially in upland or northern regions. They are common in Scotland, northern England, Wales, and parts of Ireland, particularly in areas of secondary woodland or forest regeneration.

Look for them in summer where brambles or other soft fruits might also grow, particularly in mixed or coniferous woodlands where sunlight reaches the undergrowth.

How to Identify

Raspberry canes grow upright or arching, to around 1.5 to 2 metres tall. The stems are green or reddish, often covered in small, fine prickles (not as harsh or hooked as those on bramble). They emerge in clumps or rows from underground runners.

Leaves are pinnate, with three to five toothed, oval leaflets. The upper surface is dark green; the underside is paler and often softly hairy or silverish. Leaves are alternate along the cane and may persist into early Winter.

Flowers are small, white to pale pink, with five petals, and form loose clusters near the upper parts of second-year canes. They bloom from late Spring to early Summer and are visited by bees and other insects.

Fruits are red, conical, and made up of many drupelets arranged around a central receptacle. When ripe, the fruit separates cleanly from the core — unlike blackberries, which retain it. Ripe raspberries are soft, fragrant, and easily crushed.

Sensory Information

The flowers have a faint, sweet scent and are lightly sticky to the touch due to nectar. The leaves have a slightly sharp, herbaceous scent when crushed. The canes are rough and prickly, though not aggressively thorned.

The ripe fruit is aromatic and richly sweet with a tart edge. The flesh is soft and juicy, and the tiny seeds give a pleasant crunch. The flavour is delicate but intense, with floral and wine-like notes. Unripe berries are hard, sour, and pale pink or green.

How to Use

Raspberries are best enjoyed fresh and can also be used in a wide range of culinary applications. They can be eaten straight from the cane, added to Summer fruit salads, or used in desserts such as tarts, pavlovas, trifles, fools, or sorbets. They pair well with cream, lemon, chocolate, and elderflower.

The fruits can be made into jams, syrups, vinegars, liqueurs, wines, or preserves. Raspberry jam is a traditional favourite, often made with wild berries during seasonal gluts. The intense flavour also makes them excellent in coulis, reductions, and glazes for meats or game.

Raspberries can be dried for use in baking or steeped in alcohol to make raspberry liqueur or brandy. They freeze well and can be stored for use throughout the year.

The young Spring leaves were once used as a herbal infusion, often by women during pregnancy and childbirth, though this use is now more historical or medicinal than culinary.

Non food and drink uses

Raspberry plants are valuable for wildlife, providing nectar for insects and fruit for birds and mammals such as voles, badgers, and foxes. The dense, thorny thickets offer shelter and nesting opportunities for small birds. In some areas, raspberry is used in forest regeneration and agroforestry as an early coloniser.

The leaves contain tannins and were used in folk medicine for astringent teas and rinses. The stems are not particularly strong or durable and are not widely used in crafts or construction. However, in traditional use, they were sometimes bundled for rudimentary brushes or animal bedding.

Cultural References & History

Wild raspberries have been gathered for food since prehistoric times. Seeds have been found in Mesolithic sites, and the plant is mentioned in ancient Greek and Roman writings. The Latin name “idaeus” refers to Mount Ida in modern-day Turkey, where the raspberry was said to have been first discovered.

In Celtic and Norse traditions, raspberries were associated with fertility, sweetness, and Summer abundance. In Scottish folklore, raspberry patches were said to be visited by faeries during mid-Summer nights.

In medieval and early modern herbalism, raspberry leaves and fruits were used in a variety of remedies. The plant was cultivated in monastic gardens and later became a favourite of estate and cottage gardens for its fruit.

Mythology

While not as steeped in myth as elder or rowan, raspberries carry symbolic meanings of love, youth, and passion. The red juice of the berry was likened to blood and life-force in some traditional tales, and raspberries were considered a fruit of Summer vitality and romantic sweetness.

In Slavic folklore, the raspberry was sometimes linked to the Virgin Mary or saintly purity, with the delicate, blushing berries representing modesty and beauty. In other traditions, raspberry thickets were considered places of protection or hidden knowledge, often sheltering animals, herbs, or hidden treasures.

In modern symbolic language, raspberries are associated with kindness, nurturing, and fleeting pleasures — sweet, vibrant, and easily lost if not savoured in time.

Blaeberry

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Blaeberry
• Bilberry
• WhoRtleberry
• Myrtleberry
• Hurtleberry
• Vaccinium Myrtillus

Origin

Blaeberry is native to Europe and northern Asia and is found throughout upland and moorland regions of the British Isles, Scandinavia, and parts of central and eastern Europe. It thrives in acidic, nutrient-poor soils and is particularly associated with heathland, moorland, upland woods, and the understory of coniferous forests. In Scotland and northern England, it is especially common, forming extensive low-growing colonies across hillsides and forest floors.

Summary

Blaeberry is a low, spreading deciduous shrub in the heather family (Ericaceae), known for its small, round, dark blue fruits that ripen in mid to late Summer. The plant typically grows up to 50 cm in height and spreads through underground rhizomes, forming dense ground cover in acidic, well-drained soils.

The plant flowers in late Spring to early Summer, producing pale pink or greenish, urn-shaped blooms, which are followed by berries in July and August. The fruits are smaller than commercial blueberries but more intensely flavoured, with a dark purple flesh that stains fingers and tongues. Blaeberries have long been used in wild food traditions, especially in northern Britain.

Where to find Blaeberry

Blaeberry is found in heathland, open woodland, moorland, forest clearings, and upland slopes, especially on peaty or sandy soils. It grows best in acidic environments and is common across Scotland, the Lake District, Snowdonia, and upland Wales. It often forms the understory beneath Scots pine or birch and may grow alongside heather, crowberry, and mosses.

Look for its low, bushy habit and small oval green leaves in Spring and early Summer, followed by dark blue berries in late Summer. It can form extensive patches, often no more than knee-high.

How to Identify

Blaeberry is a small, wiry shrub with green, angular stems and small, ovate leaves. The leaves are finely toothed, alternate, and bright green in Spring, turning reddish in autumn before dropping. Stems are distinctly ridged or angled, often with a green tint when young.

Flowers appear singley in the leaf axils, usually from May to June. Each flower is small, pinkish to pale green, and shaped like a hanging urn.

The fruit is a round, dark blue to nearly black berry, about 5–8 mm in diameter, with a deep purple, juicy interior. Unlike blueberries, blaeberries are coloured throughout, not just on the skin.

The plant often forms spreading mats, particularly in open woodland or heathland where it is not heavily grazed.

Sensory Information

The ripe berries are deeply coloured, staining skin and clothing purple. Their flavour is tangy, sweet, and aromatic, often described as more intense than cultivated blueberries. The berries are soft and juicy, with a thin skin and slightly gritty seeds.

The leaves have a mild green scent when crushed. Flowers are faintly fragrant but not showy. The plant itself is low, wiry, and springy underfoot, forming part of the classic moorland or forest floor texture.

How to Use

Blaeberries are prized for their culinary qualities and can be eaten raw or cooked. They are traditionally gathered in late Summer for use in pies, tarts, jams, preserves, and compotes. Their rich, sharp flavour pairs well with apples, rowan, and other wild fruits.

Raw blaeberries are delicious in yoghurt, cereal, or mixed with cream. They are also used to make sauces, cordials, liqueurs, syrups, and wines. The intense colour makes them useful in staining and natural food dyes.

Berries can be dried for later use, though their high water content means they shrivel significantly. Frozen blaeberries retain much of their flavour and colour and can be stored for winter use.

In the Highlands, blaeberry pie, or blaeberry bannocks, were common seasonal treats. In parts of Scandinavia and the Baltics, wild bilberries are still harvested and preserved for winter.

The leaves were sometimes used in traditional herbal infusions, but their culinary use is limited. Berries are the main edible part and should be picked when fully ripe. Foraging should be done responsibly, leaving enough for wildlife, including birds and small mammals.

Non food and drink uses

Blaeberry has been used historically for its deep purple juice as a natural dye, particularly for fabrics and even ink. The juice can stain hands and mouths, giving rise to folk names like “hurtberry” and “dyeberry.”

The plant is ecologically important, supporting birds, insects, and mammals. Its dense low growth provides ground cover and erosion control in upland environments.

In herbal medicine, bilberries have been used for improving night vision, circulatory issues, and as an astringent for diarrhoea. These uses are more medicinal than practical and are not commonly employed in everyday life.

Cultural References & History

Blaeberry has long been a valued foraged fruit in upland Britain and Europe. In Scottish and northern English dialects, "blae" refers to the plant’s blue colouring. Children traditionally foraged the berries in Summer, often eating more than they brought home, with purple fingers and mouths as the usual evidence.

In Scottish folklore, blaeberries were thought to be food of the fae and were associated with the wild, uncultivated Highlands. In parts of Ireland and Wales, berries were gathered during Lammas and Lughnasadh festivals as symbols of Summer’s abundance.

In Scandinavia, bilberries are still a major part of wild harvest culture, with festivals and family foraging trips taking place in late July and August. In Britain, the tradition has faded but is being revived through interest in wild food and heritage recipes.

Mythology

While not as prominently mythologised as elder or rowan, blaeberries have a quiet place in upland folklore. Their association with faeries and hidden places made them symbols of the mysterious and untamed. In some traditions, stepping into a blaeberry patch was thought to bring strange dreams or invite encounters with the unseen.

The act of foraging for blaeberries, particularly in the misty uplands, was sometimes viewed as crossing into liminal space — not quite domestic, not fully wild. As a plant that gives freely but stains as it does, blaeberry held a kind of symbolic balance between reward and reminder, pleasure and permanence.

Bramble

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Bramble
• Blackberry
• Briar
• Rubus Fruicosus Aggregate

Origin

Bramble is native to Europe and widely distributed across the British Isles, temperate Asia, and North Africa. It has also naturalised extensively in North America, Australia, and New Zealand. It thrives in a wide range of habitats including woodland edges, hedgerows, scrubland, waste ground, railway embankments, and gardens. Bramble is a pioneer species, often the first to colonise disturbed or neglected land. It tolerates poor soils, shade, and exposure, spreading vigorously by arching stems that root at the tips.

Summary

Bramble is a vigorous, sprawling, thorny shrub that produces sweet, edible blackberries in late summer and early autumn. Its stems, or canes, are biennial: growing vegetatively in the first year and fruiting in the second. Bramble is both ecologically and culturally significant, offering food, shelter, and nesting sites for wildlife, while providing humans with fruit and materials for centuries.

It flowers from May to August, depending on location and climate. The white or pink-tinged flowers are followed by clusters of small drupelets that form the familiar blackberries, which ripen from green to red to deep purple-black. Bramble forms dense, impenetrable thickets that can dominate neglected ground.

Where to find Bramble

Bramble is one of the most widespread and familiar wild plants in the UK and Ireland. It grows in woodland clearings, hedgerows, field margins, heathland, scrub, gardens, and anywhere with broken or neglected ground. It thrives in both sun and partial shade and spreads quickly, forming thickets by rooting from arching stems.

Look for it in summer and early autumn when fruits are ripening. In spring and early summer, the flowers attract a wide range of pollinators.

How to Identify

Bramble is a sprawling, thorny shrub with arching or trailing stems that can grow several metres long. Stems are typically green or purplish and covered in sharp, backward-facing prickles. These stems root at the tips when they touch soil.

Sensory Information

The flowers have a strong, sweet fragrance with a honey-like or musky undertone. The leaves and stems, by contrast, have a sharp, acrid scent when crushed. The ripe berries have a tart, slightly bitter taste when raw and a rich, winey flavour when cooked.

The flowers are delicate and slightly oily to the touch; the berries are soft, juicy, and stain fingers deep purple when crushed. Unripe berries are firmer and greener in colour.

Leaves are compound, usually with 3 to 5 oval, toothed leaflets. The upper surface is dark green; the underside is paler and sometimes hairy.

Flowers are five-petalled, white or pale pink, and appear from late spring into summer. They grow in loose clusters at the tips of second-year stems and are highly attractive to bees.

Fruits (blackberries) are made up of multiple drupelets clustered together. They ripen from green to red to glossy black between August and October. Each drupelet contains a tiny seed.

Bramble is not a single species but a complex aggregate of closely related micro-species. Variation in leaf shape, stem colour, and fruit form is common.

How to Use

The ripe fruits are widely used in culinary applications. Blackberries can be eaten fresh, added to fruit salads, or preserved through cooking. They are ideal for pies, crumbles, jams, jellies, syrups, sauces, vinegars, and wines. Their deep colour and rich flavour make them a staple in autumnal wild food recipes.

Unripe berries are too tart to be eaten raw but can be used in pickling or for making sharp sauces. Berries should be harvested when fully black and plump, ideally on a dry day. Avoid fruits near roadsides or sprayed areas.

Blackberry leaves can also be used to make a mild, astringent herbal tea, often used in folk medicine for sore throats or diarrhoea. The young spring leaves are best for this purpose.

The fruit freezes well and can be used year-round for smoothies, compotes, and baking. Blackberry wine and cordial are traditional hedgerow drinks, often made with elderberry or crab apple to balance flavour and acidity.

Non food and drink uses

Bramble stems were historically used for tying thatch, weaving rough baskets, and making rustic bindings. The fibres are strong and pliable when green. The prickly thickets provide ideal shelter and nesting habitat for birds such as wrens, thrushes, and blackbirds, and support numerous insects including butterflies and moths.

The roots were once boiled to extract dye, producing a dull grey-brown. The plant is important in hedgerow management and is sometimes used to deter livestock or intruders due to its impenetrable nature.

Cultural References & History

Bramble has deep roots in rural life, folklore, and seasonal traditions. In many parts of Britain and Ireland, blackberry picking was a communal activity associated with late summer and early autumn. Children would gather berries in buckets, often returning with stained hands and scratched arms.

A common belief held that blackberries should not be picked after Michaelmas (September 29th), as the Devil was said to spit or curse the berries on that day. Variations of the tale exist across the British Isles, with some versions referencing Samhain or Old Michaelmas Day (October 10th).

In English and Irish tradition, bramble arches were used in healing rituals, particularly for passing children with hernias or skin ailments through the loop to cure them. Bramble was also believed to ward off evil and was planted as a protective boundary around homes and sacred sites.

Mythology

In folklore, bramble represents protection, resilience, and boundary. Its impenetrable thickets were believed to guard against curses and unwanted spirits. The thorns were symbolic of both defence and hardship, and in Christian imagery, brambles were linked to penance and the crown of thorns.

Some tales say that witches could not pass through bramble thickets, and a bramble growing over a doorway or gate was considered a sign of natural warding. In herbal lore, passing through a bramble arch three times was thought to break spells, cure disease, or remove bad luck.

The blackberry’s life cycle - flowering in spring, fruiting in summer, dying back in winter - made it a symbol of life’s turning wheel. In some traditions, it was associated with fertility and abundance, while in others, the blood-red juice was linked to sacrifice and transformation.

Elderberry

Name - common name/s and Latin name

• Elder
• Elderberry
• European Elder
• Black Elder
• Sambucus Nigra

Origin

Elderberry is native to Europe, western Asia, and North Africa, and it has been widely naturalised in temperate regions around the world. It thrives in moist, nutrient-rich soils and is commonly found in hedgerows, woodland edges, roadsides, riverbanks, and abandoned areas. In Britain and Ireland, it is a familiar presence in rural and urban settings alike, often growing in the shelter of old farmsteads or field margins. Elder is adaptable and fast-growing, often one of the first woody plants to colonise disturbed ground.

Summary

Elder is a fast-growing, deciduous shrub or small tree, typically reaching 4 to 6 metres in height. It is best known for its fragrant, creamy-white flower heads in early Summer and its small, dark purple berries in late Summer to early autumn. Both the flowers and ripe berries are used in food, drink, and traditional remedies, though other parts of the plant are mildly toxic and must be treated with caution.

Flowering usually occurs between May and June in the UK, with fruit ripening from late August into September. Elder supports a wide range of wildlife, including pollinators, birds, and mammals, and has long been considered a sacred and protective plant in folklore.

Where to find Elderberry

Elder grows in hedgerows, woodland edges, waste ground, railway embankments, damp meadows, and garden margins. It prefers damp, nitrogen-rich soils but tolerates a variety of conditions, including urban environments. It is widespread throughout Europe and commonly found across the UK and Ireland.

Look for it in early Summer when large, flat-topped clusters of white flowers appear, and again in late Summer when heavy bunches of dark berries hang down from the branches.

How to Identify

Elder is a bushy shrub or small tree with opposite branching and pinnate leaves made up of 5 to 7 toothed leaflets. The leaves are dark green, slightly serrated, and emit a strong, somewhat unpleasant smell when crushed.

In late spring to early Summer, it produces broad, umbrella-shaped clusters (called umbels) of tiny, five-petalled, creamy-white flowers with a sweet, musky scent. These are followed by hanging clusters of glossy, dark purple to black berries in late Summer and Autumn.

The bark is greyish-brown and becomes deeply furrowed with age. Young stems are green and often have prominent lenticels (pores). The branches and stems have a soft, spongy pith inside, which can be easily hollowed out.

Sensory Information

The flowers have a strong, sweet fragrance with a honey-like or musky undertone. The leaves and stems, by contrast, have a sharp, acrid scent when crushed. The ripe berries have a tart, slightly bitter taste when raw and a rich, winey flavour when cooked.

The flowers are delicate and slightly oily to the touch; the berries are soft, juicy, and stain fingers deep purple when crushed. Unripe berries are firmer and greener in colour.

How to Use

Elderflowers and elderberries are both used in culinary applications, but must be processed correctly.

The flowers are harvested in early Summer and can be used to make elderflower cordial, sparkling wine (champagne-style), syrups, jellies, and floral desserts. They are also used to flavour cakes, custards, and beverages. Flowers should be picked fresh on dry mornings before they begin to brown, and the stems discarded, as they contain mildly toxic compounds.

The berries are harvested when fully ripe and dark purple, usually in late August to September. They are used to make elderberry wine, jam, jelly, syrup, vinegar, sauces, and medicinal preparations such as oxymel or elixir. The raw berries contain small amounts of cyanogenic glycosides and should be cooked before consumption to neutralise toxicity.

Elderberry syrup is a traditional remedy for colds and flu, valued for its immune-supporting properties. It is often combined with spices, honey, and vinegar to make warming, tonic drinks.

Flowers and berries are both highly aromatic and used in creative and seasonal cuisine. Elderberry ketchup, fruit leather, and wild berry pies are just a few examples of modern foraged recipes using this versatile plant.

Non food and drink uses

Elder wood is soft, brittle, and not generally used for construction but has been used historically for making whistles, pipes, and spiles due to its easily hollowed-out stems. In folklore, the hollow stems were used to blow fires into life, and were believed to carry magical breath.

The pith was once used in scientific instruments, such as microscope slide supports, due to its uniform texture. Elder leaves were rubbed on skin or hung in doorways to deter flies and insects.

The plant is important for wildlife: birds such as blackbirds and thrushes eat the berries, and pollinators visit the flowers in early Summer. The dense, shrubby growth provides good nesting cover for birds.

Cultural References & History

Elder is one of the most mythologised plants in European folklore. Often known as the "witch’s tree," it was believed to be inhabited by a spirit or guardian, sometimes referred to as the Elder Mother. Cutting an Elder tree without permission or ritual was thought to bring misfortune. In some traditions, permission was sought verbally before taking wood or flowers.

Despite its dark associations, Elder was also regarded as protective. Branches were hung over doorways, windows, or in stables to ward off evil spirits, disease, and lightning. Elder trees were sometimes planted near cottages for luck and healing.

Elder has been used for centuries in herbal medicine. The flowers were used for fevers, skin eruptions, and colds, while berries were valued as a gentle immune stimulant. In the Middle Ages, Elder was considered a panacea and appeared in many medical texts.

Mythology

In folklore, the Elder tree was a liminal plant - a boundary marker between worlds. Associated with both healing and harm, it was feared and revered. In many cultures, it was believed that the Elder housed a female spirit or guardian who must be honoured. In some stories, if the tree was cut without her blessing, bad luck or illness would follow.

It was also associated with transformation and death. Coffins were occasionally made from Elder wood, and it was thought that Elder growing near a home indicated a connection to the spirit world. In Norse mythology, elder was sacred to Freya, the goddess of love, magic, and fertility.

Despite its ominous reputation, ELder’s abundant gifts - flowers in spring, berries in autumn - made it a symbol of renewal, resilience, and the cyclical nature of life.

Blackthorn

Name - common name/s and Latin name:

• Blackthorn
• Sloe
• Prunus Spinosa

Origin

Blackthorn is native to much of Europe, including the British Isles, and is also found across western Asia and parts of North Africa. It thrives in temperate climates and is commonly found in hedgerows, woodland edges, scrub, and rough pasture. A true native of the British countryside, it forms dense thickets and natural boundaries and has been used for centuries in traditional hedge-laying. Blackthorn is well adapted to exposed conditions and poor soils, making it a dominant species in wild field margins and ancient boundaries.

Summary

Blackthorn is a deciduous, spiny shrub or small tree, typically growing between 2 and 5 metres tall. It is best known for its dense, thorny branches, early spring blossom, and small, tart fruits known as sloes. The plant flowers in March or April, often before the leaves emerge, creating striking displays of white blossom on bare black twigs. The dark fruits ripen in autumn and are traditionally gathered after the first frost.

Blackthorn forms an important part of native hedgerows and scrub habitats, providing shelter, food, and nesting sites for birds, insects, and small mammals. Its long thorns and dense growth habit make it ideal for natural fencing.

Where to find Blackthorn

Blackthorn is common in hedgerows, woodland margins, scrubland, downs, and rough grazing areas. It thrives on chalk, clay, and loam soils and is particularly widespread in lowland Britain and Ireland. Often planted as part of traditional hedgerows, it can also grow wild in thickets, banks, and roadside verges.

Look for it in early spring when clouds of white flowers appear on dark, bare branches, often before any leaves are present. In autumn, the deep blue-black sloes are visible, often with a powdery bloom on the skin.

How to Identify

Blackthorn is a thorny, spreading shrub with dark, almost black bark and sharp, stout spines along its branches. It forms dense thickets and is easily recognised by its early white flowers, which appear before the leaves in spring.

Leaves are oval, finely toothed, and matte green, growing alternately along the stems. They appear after flowering and are typically 2–4 cm long.

Flowers are small, five-petalled, and pure white, blooming in clusters along the branches in March and April. Each flower is about 1.5 cm wide and has numerous yellow stamens.

Fruits (sloes) are round, about 1 cm in diameter, with a dark blue to black skin and a powdery bloom. They ripen from September to November and contain a single hard stone inside.

The bark is dark and furrowed on older stems, with younger branches showing a deep purplish hue. Long, sharp thorns up to 5 cm in length protrude at regular intervals along the branches.

Sensory Information

Blackthorn is a thorny, spreading shrub with dark, almost black bark and sharp, stout spines along its branches. It forms dense thickets and is easily recognised by its early white flowers, which appear before the leaves in spring.

Leaves are oval, finely toothed, and matte green, growing alternately along the stems. They appear after flowering and are typically 2–4 cm long.

Flowers are small, five-petalled, and pure white, blooming in clusters along the branches in March and April. Each flower is about 1.5 cm wide and has numerous yellow stamens.

Fruits (sloes) are round, about 1 cm in diameter, with a dark blue to black skin and a powdery bloom. They ripen from September to November and contain a single hard stone inside.

The bark is dark and furrowed on older stems, with younger branches showing a deep purplish hue. Long, sharp thorns up to 5 cm in length protrude at regular intervals along the branches.

How to Use

The primary culinary use of Blackthorn is in its fruit — the sloe. These are gathered in autumn and most famously used to make sloe gin, a traditional British liqueur where the fruits are steeped in gin with sugar over several months.

Sloes can also be used to make jams, jellies, syrups, chutneys, and fruit leathers, often in combination with sweeter fruits to balance their tartness. When cooked with sugar, the flavour becomes rich and plummy with a slight almond undertone.

The fruits are best harvested after the first frost, which softens their skin and reduces astringency. If picked earlier, they can be stored in the freezer to simulate this effect.

Pits must be removed before consuming large quantities, as they contain compounds similar to cyanide. The flesh is safe and flavourful when prepared correctly.

Blackthorn blossoms were once used in herbal teas and syrups for their mild laxative and digestive properties, though this use is now rare and more historical than culinary.

Non food and drink uses

Blackthorn’s hard, dense wood was traditionally used for walking sticks, clubs, and tool handles. The classic Irish shillelagh was often made from blackthorn. The wood is tough and slow-burning, also valued as firewood.

Its dense, thorny growth makes it ideal for impenetrable hedging and natural boundaries. It supports a wide range of wildlife, providing food and cover for birds, insects, and mammals. Blackthorn is a larval food plant for several butterfly species, including the brown hairstreak.

Thorns were once used as sewing pins or styluses and were believed to have magical properties in some folk traditions.

Cultural References & History

Blackthorn is deeply embedded in British and Irish folklore. It was regarded with ambivalence: both protective and dangerous. Its early flowers symbolised the end of winter, but its dark thorns and dense growth gave it an eerie, sometimes malevolent reputation. In rural tradition, blackthorn was considered a “witch’s tree”, often associated with misfortune, cursing, and the supernatural.

In hedge-laying traditions, blackthorn was prized for forming stock-proof barriers and for its long lifespan. Sloe gin became especially popular in rural areas as a homemade cordial and was often prepared as part of annual foraging customs.

In literary and poetic works, blackthorn appears as a symbol of hardship, endurance, and the harsh beauty of the wilderness.

Mythology

Blackthorn has a rich and sometimes dark place in European mythology. In Celtic lore, it was the tree of the dark half of the year, ruling from Samhain (late October) to Beltane (May). It was said to guard the boundary between worlds and was associated with Crone goddesses, winter, and protective magic.

Thorns from blackthorn were believed to be used in witchcraft, both as tools of protection and instruments of cursing. Carrying blackthorn wood was thought to grant strength and defence, while dreaming of the tree could be an omen of challenge or transformation.

Despite its sinister associations, blackthorn was also a symbol of resilience and renewal — it flowers at the threshold of spring, often while frosts still linger, and thrives in poor, exposed soils where few others flourish.